splendors of the Assyrian, Babylonian and Persian Empires. The palace of Sargon II at Khorsabad was notable for its regularity and use of symmetry, as well as its splendid reliefs, glazed bricks and enameled tile paintings. Sennacherib’s palace at Nineveh was an immense structure of some seventy rooms, with almost 10,000 feet (3,048 meters) of wall space lined with sculptured slabs. (2 Ki. 19:36; compare Jonah 3:2, 3.) Sennacherib is also believed to have built the thirty-mile (48.3 kilometers) aqueduct that carried water from the Gomer River to the gardens of Nineveh. At Mari, on the Euphrates in eastern Syria, an enormous three-hundred-room palace complex covered some fifteen acres (6 hectares). The ruins of ancient Babylon likewise indicate the one-time magnificence of that city with its formidable walls, famous streets, and numerous splendid palaces and temples.

Under Persian rule, Jews in Shushan might view the splendor of the palace of Darius I there, with its interiors beautified by splendidly colored glazed bricks. At Persepolis the grandeur was perhaps yet more impressive, from the Gate of Xerxes, with its colossal bulls, to the palace and huge audience halls of Darius and Xerxes, including the hall of one hundred columns. The Persian columns were more graceful and slender than the famed Ionic columns of the Greeks. The ratio of height to diameter of the columns in the Hall of Xerxes was 12 to 1 as compared to a ratio of 10 to 1 maximum for Corinthian columns, and only 6 to 1 for Egyptian columns. Likewise, the span attained between the columns in Persian buildings was as much as twice that of the Greek buildings, thus creating a greater sense of spaciousness than found in similar ancient structures.

GRECIAN AND ROMAN STYLES AND METHODS

Greek architecture entered its “golden period” from the seventh century on down to the fourth century B.C.E. Athens became the site for majestic temples and buildings erected in honor of the Greek gods and goddesses, including the Parthenon, the Temple of the Wingless Victory, and the Erechtheum; while at Corinth the Temple of Apollo and the vast marketplace (or a·go·raʹ) were outstanding. The style of architecture is generally designated by the three main orders of beautiful Greek columns developed: the Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian.

The Romans were much indebted to the Greeks as to architectural style. Roman architecture was generally more functional than the Greek, while lacking some of its subtle beauty. They also benefited from the Etruscans, who were noted for their true arch formed with wedge-shaped atones. In the sixth century B.C.E. such true arches were used in a most impressive way in the construction of the great sewers of Rome. The Roman architects are to be credited also with the development of the double arch and the dome, both of which they used in producing enormous column-free rotundas and spacious halls. The Greek masons had built majestic structures without the use of mortar or cement due to their surpassing skill and precision in fitting and joining the marble blocks used. Roman masons made use of a volcanic earth combined with lime called pozzolana, a hydraulic cement of great cohesive strength. With pozzolana as mortar, the Romans could extend the span of their arches as well as construct multistoried edifices, including the mammoth four-story Coliseum, built in the first century C.E., with a seating capacity variously estimated as accommodating from 40,000 to 87,000 persons. Among the more valuable Roman constructions were the great military roads and splendid aqueducts built particularly from the third century B.C.E. forward. The apostle Paul made much use of these Roman highways and undoubtedly saw the aqueduct of Emperor Claudius along the Appian Way when traveling to Rome.

CHRISTIAN BUILDING

Even as the nation of Israel was not noted for architectural splendor or pomp, so too the early Christians of spiritual Israel constructed with modesty. Unger’s Bible Dictionary (pp. 84, 85) comments: “As early as in the 3rd century buildings erected by them existed, but they were neither substantial nor costly.” It was not until the time of Emperor Constantine, when encouragement was given to those so inclined to enter relations with the political state, that nominal Christians began to produce a particular style of architecture, eventually constructing some of the most ornate and pompous edifices known.

ARCHITECTURE IN PROPHECY AND FIGURE

There are numerous uses of architectural terms in Biblical prophecies and figures. The restoration prophecies deal to a great extent with the building (or rebuilding) of God’s people and their cities. (Isa. 58:12; 60:10; 61:4; Ezek. 28:26; 36:36) Zion is foretold to be built upon stones laid with hard mortar, with sapphire foundations, ruby battlements, and gates of fiery glowing stones. (Isa. 54:11, 12) Wisdom is described as building its own house (Prov. 9:1) and, along with discernment and knowledge, as being the means for building up a household. (Prov. 14:1; 24:3, 4) The wicked are likened to one who builds a roomy house by unrighteousness and injustice, and the one who builds a city with bloodshed. (Jer. 22:13-15; Hab. 2:12) Their efforts at achieving peace are compared to the building of a plastered partition wall that Jehovah blasts with the windstorm and hail of his rage, tearing it down and revealing its foundations. (Ezek. 13:10-16) The psalmist assures that unless Jehovah builds the house, the builders labor in vain. (Ps. 127:1) Prior to the “great day of Jehovah,” those who disregard God will build, but will not come to occupy their buildings. (Zeph. 1:12-14; compare Amos 5:11.) By contrast, God’s servants are to “build houses and have occupancy” and “use to the full” the work of their hands.—Isa. 65:17-23; compare Ecclesiastes 3:3.

In the Christian Greek Scriptures, the importance of making a “cost estimate” before beginning construction is used by Jesus in counseling on the decision to become his follower. (Luke 14:28-30) The need for a solid foundation is used in a number of illustrations. (Matt. 7:24-27; Luke 6:48, 49; 1 Tim. 6:17-19; 2 Tim. 2:19; Heb. 11:10) Christ Jesus speaks of founding his congregation on a rock-mass (peʹtra) (Matt. 16:18), and Jesus himself is shown to be the one foundation, besides which “no man can lay any other”; yet, “the stone that the builders rejected.” (1 Cor. 3:11; Matt. 21:42; Acts 4:11; Ps. 118:22) As the chief cornerstone, all the other “living stones” of the spiritual temple are founded on and aligned with him, with justice as the “measuring line” and righteousness as the “leveling instrument.” (Eph. 2:20, 21; 1 Pet. 2:4-8; Isa. 28:16, 17) On such basis Jesus could speak of the temple, of which he was the chief part, as being raised up “in three days,” although the literal temple and surrounding buildings at Jerusalem in his day had taken forty-six years to build, and still were not finished. (John 2:18-22) Paul, as a “wise director of works,” admonished concerning the use of high-quality, noncombustible materials in building on Christ as the foundation. (1 Cor. 3:10-17) Love is described as a prime element of building. (1 Cor. 8:1; compare Psalm 89:2.) John’s vision of the New Jerusalem presents it as a radiant city formed of precious stones with its walls resting on foundation stones inscribed with the names of the “twelve apostles of the Lamb.” (Rev. 21:9-27) God himself is presented as the great Constructor of all things; hence as not residing in buildings made by men.—Heb. 3:4; Acts 7:48-50; 17:24, 25; Isa. 66:1.

ARD

(Ard) [perhaps, humpbacked].

One of the ‘seventy souls of the house of Jacob who came into Egypt.’ (Gen. 46:21, 27) In the Genesis account he is called a son of Benjamin, but in view of Numbers 26:40 it seems likely that the meaning here is “grandson.” If this is the case, then he is also probably the same as Addar in 1 Chronicles 8:3.

ARDITES

(Ardʹites).

A Benjamite family descended from Ard, a son of Bela.—Num. 26:40.

ARDON

(Arʹdon).

One of the sons of Caleb the son of Hezron; of the tribe of Judah.—1 Chron. 2:18.

ARELI, ARELITES

(A·reʹli, A·reʹlites) [perhaps, lioness of God, hearth of God].

Seventh-named son of Gad, who was one of those who came into Egypt with Jacob’s family in 1728 B.C.E. He became family head of the Arelites, who were included in the wilderness census shortly before entering the Promised Land.—Gen. 46:8, 16; Num. 26:17.

AREOPAGUS

(Ar·e·opʹa·gus) [Hill of Ares, Mars Hill].

A hill to the NW of the towering Athenian Acropolis, separated from it by a shallow valley. This rather narrow, barren ridge of limestone is about 370 feet (112.8 meters) high, and the Acropolis to its SE rises over 140 feet (42.7 meters) higher. The approach to Mars Hill is gentle from the N; on the S it is abrupt. Crowning this hill at one time were Grecian altars, temple sanctuaries, statues, and the open-air supreme court of the Areopagus. Today all this is faded away and only a few of the benchlike seats carved in the rock remain.

On one of the apostle Paul’s visits to Athens, certain Athenians laid hold of him and led him to the Areopagus, saying: “Can we get to know what this new teaching is which is spoken by you? For you are introducing some things that are strange to our ears.” (Acts 17:19, 20) In reply Paul carefully laid one solid fact of truth upon another, building up as he went along, a logical, persuasive and convincing argument. Paul never completed his speech, for “when they heard of a resurrection of the dead” mockers began to jeer. However, by the time this interruption came the apostle had succeeded in splitting his audience three ways in their opinions. While some mocked, and some said they would hear more later, others “became believers, among whom also were Dionysius, a judge of the court of the Areopagus, and a woman named Damaris, and others besides them.” (Acts 17:22-34) Today a bronze plaque on Mars Hill commemorating the event contains this speech of the apostle Paul. It cannot be stated for a certainty that Paul spoke on that occasion before the court of the Areopagus, but he did have at least one member of that noted court in his audience.

The hill on which this famous court once held forth derived its name from the mythological Greek god Aʹres (Roman, Mars). The court of the Areopagus was itself of great antiquity, predating 740 B.C.E. Though its duties and jurisdiction were modified and changed from time to time through the centuries, it commanded the highest honor and respect down to the time of the Caesars.

[Picture on page 118]

The Areopagus (low hill in the foreground)

ARETAS

(A·reʹtas) [virtuous, excellence].

The last of several Arabian kings of this name controlled Damascus when its governor joined a plot of the Jews to do away with Paul. Paul escaped in a wicker basket lowered from a window in the city wall.—Acts 9:23-25; 2 Cor. 11:32, 33.

Aretas had given his daughter in marriage to Herod Antipas (see HEROD), who divorced her to marry Herodias—the adulterous affair that John the Baptist condemned. (Matt. 14:3, 4) Further aggravated by border disputes, Aretas attacked and totally defeated Antipas. Emperor Tiberius then ordered the governor of Syria, Vitellius, to take Aretas dead or alive. Vitellius, himself no friend of Antipas, mobilized his forces, but in 37 C.E. Tiberius died and the campaign against Aretas was called off. Tiberius’