the bearing of children, as she was then some ninety years of age.—Heb. 11:11.

An age limit was set for qualification to temple service, as well as an age limit at which obligatory service ceased. Some have alleged a discrepancy in the statements at Numbers 4:3, 30, 31 and 8:24-26, since the age for beginning Levitical service is stated first as from thirty years of age and thereafter as from twenty-five years. However, the case seems to be that of two categories of service involved. Thus, certain rabbinical sources present the view that at the age of twenty-five a Levite was introduced into the tabernacle service but only to perform lighter tasks, and then, on reaching the full age of thirty, entered into the heavier tasks. They point out that the references to the “work” “laborious service and the service of carrying loads” mentioned in Numbers 4:3, 47, do not appear at Numbers 8:24, where the age limit is twenty-five. Others add the suggestion that those serving from the age of thirty years up had to do with the transporting of the tabernacle and its equipment when on the move, while those serving between the ages of twenty-five and thirty served only when the tabernacle was erected and standing at an encampment site. Those favoring the view that only at the age of thirty were assignments to heavier tasks given, advance the reason that at that age greater strength, intellectual maturity and soundness of judgment would have been attained. Later, in David’s time, the age limit was dropped to twenty years for beginning tabernacle service, thereafter replaced by temple service.—1 Chron. 23:24-32; compare also Ezra 3:8.

As to retirement from obligatory service, this took place when the Levites reached the age of fifty. The statement at Numbers 8:25, 26 indicates that at this age the Levites could still voluntarily assist those still eligible for assigned duties but they themselves were given no direct assignment nor were they held accountable to fill such. The suggestion is made that the reason for the retirement limit for Levitical service was not merely out of consideration for their age but to prevent overcrowding of such offices. This age limit for Levites did not apply to the Aaronic high priest, for the high priest himself served in his holy office until death if he continued capable. (Num. 35:25) Aaron, Israel’s first high priest, was chosen for service when he was more than eighty and served for almost forty years afterward.—Ex. 7:7; Num. 33:39.

THE GREEK “AION”

“Age” may also refer to a period of time in man’s history, whether having or not having datable bounds. It is frequently used to translate the Greek word ai·onʹ (plural, ai·oʹnes) in some translations. Greek lexicographers show the word to mean “space of time clearly defined and marked out, epoch, age,” and also “lifetime, life,” or “age, generation.” Since an epoch or age can begin and end or it can go on forever, it follows that ai·onʹ could refer to a period of time that is endless, though having a beginning. Thus, as recorded at Mark 3:29, Jesus said that the blasphemer against the holy spirit was guilty of “everlasting [agelong, perpetual, eternal] sin,” or a sin never to be canceled out at any future time. A similar expression was used with regard to the fruitless fig tree, where “forever” in the Greek is literally “to [for] the age.” (Matt. 21:19) At Jesus’ birth the angelic promise was that “he will rule as king over the house of Jacob forever [literally, to (for) the ages].”—Luke 1:33; see TIME INDEFINITE.

However, ai·onʹ can also refer more particularly to the consistent state of things or the current state of affairs or features that distinguish a certain period of time, epoch or age rather than to the matter of time itself. As Archbishop R. C. Trench states in New Testament Synonyms (1901, p. 202): “Thus signifying time, it comes presently to signify all which exists in the world under conditions of time; . . . and then, more ethically, the course and current of this world’s affairs.” For such use of the word ai·onʹ in other texts see SYSTEMS OF THINGS.

AGEE

(Aʹgee) [fugitive].

A Hararite, the father of Shammah, who was one of David’s mighty men.—2 Sam. 23:8, 11.

AGRICULTURE

Agriculture had its beginning in Eden, since Adam, after his creation by God, was placed in the garden “to cultivate it and to take care of it.” (Gen. 2:5, 15) However, due to the unfaithfulness of the first human pair, extension of the Edenic paradise did not result; to the contrary, the ground came under God’s curse. Sweat and toil were required to eke out a living from the soil.—Gen. 3:17-19.

Adam and Eve’s first son, Cain, became a “cultivator of the ground”; Abel, a herder of sheep. (Gen. 4:2-4) Following the flood “Noah started off as a farmer” and planted a vineyard. (Gen. 9:20) At a later period Abraham, Isaac and Jacob led essentially a nomadic and pastoral life with their flocks, somewhat like pre-Flood Jabal (Gen. 4:20), though in the case of Isaac and Jacob there is also evidence of their raising crops, wheat being specifically mentioned.—Gen. 26:12; 27:37; 30:14; 37:7.

ISRAELITE AGRICULTURE

Excavations by archaeologists show the Palestine area to have been one of the earliest centers of agriculture. The Land of Promise was a very fertile land. Lot, in his day, compared the district of the Jordan to “the garden of Jehovah, like the land of Egypt as far as Zoar.” (Gen. 13:10) Prior to the Exodus, the nation of Israel had been well acquainted with agriculture down in Egypt, where wheat, flax, barley, cucumbers, watermelons, leeks, onions, garlic and other products were grown. (Ex. 9:25, 26, 31, 32; Num. 11:5; Deut. 11:10) Then for forty years the nation led an unsettled way of life in the wilderness, though relatively free from the corrupting association of pagan peoples. Upon their entry into the Land of Promise, the nation settled down to a life of cultivation of crops and of herding. There was definite advantage to their possessing a land already under cultivation. The great majority of the Hebrews familiar with agriculture in Egypt had by now perished in the wilderness and, hence, few if any qualified, proficient farmers with practical experience were available to begin farming in a land that was new and strange to them. (Num. 14:22-30; Heb. 3:16, 17) So, it was greatly to their advantage to now inherit ‘houses full of all good things, cisterns hewn out, vineyards and olive trees already planted and producing.’—Deut. 6:10, 11; 8:6-9.

Following the division of the land into tribal territories, plots of ground were apportioned out, evidently by use of a measuring rope. (Ps. 78:55; Ezek. 40:3; Amos 7:17; Mic. 2:4, 5) Once established, such boundaries were to be honored and respected.—Deut. 19:14; 27:17; Prov. 22:28; Hos. 5:10; compare Job 24:2.

Agriculture occupied an important place in the legislation given Israel. The land belonged to Jehovah and as such was not to be abused. (Lev. 25:23) The land could not be sold in perpetuity and, with the exception of properties within walled cities, land sold due to misfortunes and economic reverses was to be returned to the original possessor in the Jubilee year. (Lev. 25:10, 23-31) A sabbath rest was required every seventh year, during which the land lay fallow and its fertility was restored, thus accomplishing what is today done by rotation of crops. (Ex. 23:10, 11; Lev. 25:3-7) Such requirement might have appeared hazardous and was certainly a test of the nation’s faith in God’s promise to provide in sufficient abundance to carry them through till the harvest of the succeeding year. At the same time it encouraged prudence and foresight. The Jubilee year (every fiftieth year) also was a year of rest for the land.—Lev. 25:11, 12.

The three annual festivals commanded to be celebrated were timed to coincide with agricultural seasons: the barley harvest at the time of the festival of unfermented cakes, the wheat harvest at Pentecost, and the harvest ingathering of the summer fruits at the time of the festival of booths. (Ex. 23:14-16) For the Israelites the seasons and harvest were date factors and time indicators and were used more commonly as such than the names of the calendar months. Such agricultural life also protected the Israelites in a spiritual way, since it made them largely independent of other peoples for their needs and maintained at a minimum the need for commercial intercourse with the surrounding nations.

Though it was to be a land “flowing with milk and honey” for them under God’s blessing, nevertheless, there were agricultural problems to be worked out. On condition of their obedience, there would be no need for large-scale irrigation. (Deut. 8:7; 11:10-17) The rainy season began with the early rains about the middle of October and continued until the time of the later rains, which ended about the middle of April. (Deut. 11:14) Then followed five rainless months, the heat and dryness of which were alleviated by heavy dews that settled at night and refreshed the soil and plants. (Gen. 27:28; Deut. 33:28; see DEW.) For soil conservation on slopes, terraces were apparently employed with stone walls to contain them and prevent the washing away of the vital topsoil. Archaeological excavations show as many as sixty or more of such terraces rising one above another on some hillsides. To ensure the safety of the crops, booths or huts or even permanent towers were built in the vineyards and fields so that a watchman could be stationed to survey the surrounding areas.—Isa. 1:8; 5:2; Matt. 21:33.

King Uzziah is particularly mentioned as “a lover of agriculture.”—2 Chron. 26:10.

Though subsequent disobedience led to a withdrawal of God’s blessing and brought as a consequence agricultural disasters through crop failures, droughts, locust plagues, mildew and other problems, and though the destruction of much of the woodlands and the failure to maintain systems of terracing over a period of many centuries has led to a washing away of vast amounts of topsoil in much of Palestine, the remaining soil generally continues to be of great fertility to the present time.—See HARVEST; SOWER, SOWING; THRESHING; and similar related subjects under their individual headings.

AGRIPPA

See HEROD.

AGUR

(Aʹgur) [hireling, or collector].

The son of Jakeh and writer of the thirtieth chapter of the book of Proverbs. (Prov. 30:1) Nothing further is stated to enable further identification. He probably lived sometime during the period from Solomon’s reign (1037-997 B.C.E.) to Hezekiah’s reign (745-716 B.C.E.).

Some rabbinical scholars have considered the name Agur to be allegorical, applying to Solomon. Thus the footnote on Proverbs 30:1 in the Soncino Books of the Bible (Proverbs) quotes from the Midrash as saying: “He was called Agur because he stored up (agar) knowledge of Torah, and the son of Jakeh because he spewed it out (hikki) in that he ignored the warning against multiplying wives.” Even among the Jewish commentators, however, this view was not unanimous, many holding that the change of style, language and content indicates a different writer.

AHAB

(Aʹhab) [father’s brother].

1. Son of Omri and a king of the northern kingdom of Israel. He ruled in Samaria twenty-two years, from 940 to 919 B.C.E., and was succeeded at his death by his son Ahaziah.—1 Ki. 16:28, 29; 22:40, 51.

CONDONES FALSE WORSHIP

Ahab’s record was one of the worst as regards the vital area of true worship. Not only did the corrupted worship of Jehovah by means of Jeroboam’s golden calves continue, but Ahab also allowed Baal worship to infect Israel on an unprecedented scale due to his early marriage to Jezebel, the daughter of Ethbaal, king of Sidon. Josephus, quoting ancient historian Menander, refers to Ethbaal as Ithobalus, and the account (Against Apion, Book I, par. 18) relates that he was the priest of Astarte before ascending to the throne by murdering the king. Ahab allowed his pagan wife Jezebel to lead him into Baal worship, to build a temple for Baal and a sacred pole in honor of Ashtoreth (Astarte). (1 Ki. 16:30-33) Before long there were four hundred and fifty prophets of Baal and four hundred prophets of the sacred pole, all being fed from Jezebel’s royal table. (18:19) True prophets of Jehovah were slain by the sword and only the action of Ahab’s house manager Obadiah, a man of faith, preserved the life of one hundred of them by hiding them in caves, where they subsisted on bread and water.—18:3, 4, 13; 19:10.

As a result of his turning to Baal worship, Ahab was informed by Elijah of the coming of a severe drought which, according to Luke 4:25 and James 5:17, covered a period of three years and six months. (1 Ki. 17:1; 18:1) Only at Elijah’s word the rains would return, and, though Ahab searched for him in all the surrounding nations and kingdoms, Elijah stayed out of his reach until the due time. (17:8, 9; 18:2, 10) Ahab now endeavored to place the blame on Elijah for the drought and famine, an accusation that Elijah refuted, showing the real cause to be the Baal worship patronized by Ahab. A test held on top of Mount Carmel proved Baal to be a nonentity and manifested Jehovah as the true God; the prophets of Baal were slain at Elijah’s command, and shortly thereafter a drenching downpour brought an end to the drought. (18:17-46) Ahab headed back to Jezreel and to his wife, whom he informed of Elijah’s actions against Baalism. Jezebel reacted with a violent threat to Elijah, resulting in his flight to Mount Horeb.—19:1-8.

CAPITAL CONSTRUCTION AND VICTORIES OVER SYRIA

It is believed that Ahab’s construction works included the completing of the city of Samaria’s fortifications, revealed by archaeology to have consisted of three immensely strong walls of superior workmanship. Excavations have revealed a palace platform measuring some three hundred and fifteen feet (96 meters) from N to S, with walls giving evidence of having been faced with white marble. Numerous ivory panels for decorating furniture and wall panels were found, perhaps connected with Ahab’s “house of ivory” mentioned at 1 Kings 22:39. (Compare Amos 3:15; 6:4.) But the wealth of the city and the strength of its position were soon put to the test by a siege set against Samaria by Syrian Ben-hadad at the head of a coalition of thirty-two kings. At first meekly acquiescing to the aggressor’s demands, Ahab then balked at agreeing to allow the virtual plunder of his palace voluntarily. Peace negotiations fell through and, by divine direction, Ahab employed a battle stratagem that caught the enemy off guard and led to their slaughter, though Ben-hadad escaped.—1 Ki. 20:1-21.

Convinced that Jehovah was a ‘mountain god’ only, Ben-hadad returned the following year with a military force of equal size, but drew up for battle at Aphek in the valley of Esdraelon rather than advancing into the mountainous region of Samaria. (See also APHEK 4.) Aphek lay near Jezreel, where Ahab had his preferred residence and a palace. (1 Ki. 21:1) The Israelite forces advanced to the battle site but looked like “two tiny flocks of goats” compared to the massive Syrian encampment. Reassured by Jehovah’s promise to demonstrate that his power was not controlled by geography, Ahab’s forces dealt a crushing defeat to the enemy. (20:26-30) However, much like King Saul with Agag the Amalekite, Ahab let Benhadad survive and concluded a covenant with him by which captured cities would be returned to Israel