of calcium carbonate, also came to be known by the same name. David collected “alabaster stones in great quantity” for the building of Jehovah’s temple in Jerusalem. (1 Chron. 29:2) This ancient or “oriental alabaster” should not be confused with a modern alabaster, a hydrated calcium sulfate that is easily scratched. The original alabaster is usually white, and, due to being a stalagmite formation, sometimes has streaks of various colors. It approaches the hardness of marble but will not receive quite as high a polish. The solid alabaster was bored or drilled out to contain as much as a pound (.45 kilogram) of liquid. (John 12:3) It was usually fashioned with a narrow neck that could be effectively sealed to prevent the escape of the precious scent. When less costly materials such as gypsum were used to make such cases, these too were called alabasters simply because of the use to which they were put. However, cases made from geniune alabaster were used for the more costly ointments and perfumes, like those with which Jesus was anointed on two occasions—once in the house of a Pharisee in Galilee (Luke 7:37), and once in the house of Simon the leper in Bethany.—Matt. 26:6, 7; Mark 14:3.

ALAMOTH

(Alʹa·moth) [Heb., ʽala·mohthʹ].

Evidently a term of musical execution, its apparent meaning being “the voice of young women” or “in the style of maiden[s],” suggesting the higher tones of the musical scale. In 1 Chronicles 15:20, stringed instruments are described as being “tuned to Alamoth,” the term being transliterated. However, in the superscription to Psalm 46 ʽala·mohthʹ is translated “Maidens.”

At 1 Chronicles 15:21, the verse following the above citation another musical expression is transliterated, namely, sh^emi·nithʹ, referring to “harps tuned to Sheminith.” In the superscriptions of Psalms 6 and 12 (NW) this word is translated “lower octave.” While the two terms Alamoth and Sheminith are not necessarily opposites in meaning, some scholars believe they do stand in contrast to each other. The contents of the respective Psalms seem to indicate this also: Both Psalms (6 and 12), containing sh^emi·nithʹ in their superscriptions, are somewhat plaintive and would accordingly be accompanied in a more somber, lower range; whereas Psalm 46, containing ʽala·mohthʹ in its superscription, is joyous and reasonably would have accompaniment or be sung in a higher register.—See HARP; MUSIC.

ALEMETH

(Alʹe·meth) [a covering, from the root “to conceal”].

1. Listed as the last of nine sons of Becher born in Egypt some time after 1728 B.C.E.—1 Chron. 7:8; Gen. 46:21, 26.

2. A son of Jehoaddah (or Jarah) and a direct descendant of King Saul. His two brothers were Azmaveth and Zimri.—1 Chron. 8:36; 9:42.

3. A town of Benjamin. See ALMON.

ʼAʹLEPH

[א]

The first letter of the Hebrew alphabet. The name assigned to this letter means “bull (cattle).” The letter is also later used outside the Hebrew Bible as a number and, when so used, denotes unity or one.

The Greek name alʹpha is derived from this Hebrew letter’s name, and our letter “a” is, in turn, drawn from the Greek letter. However, in Hebrew ʼaʹleph is not a vowel but a consonant and has no true equivalent in English. It is transliterated in writing by a raised comma (ʼ). As pronounced in Hebrew it is the softest of guttural sounds (that is, sounds pronounced in the throat), and is like the slight guttural sound given to the silent “h” at the beginning of the English word “hour,” or like with the second “o” in “cooperate.”

In the Hebrew, the first eight verses in Psalm 119 begin with ʼaʹleph.—see ALPHABET.

ALEXANDER

(Al·ex·anʹder) [man’s defender].

1. Alexander the Great, son of Phillip II of Macedonia and his wife Olympias, born in Pella about October 356 B.C.E. Although not mentioned by name in the Bible, his rule of the fifth world empire was foretold two centuries before his birth.—Dan. 8:5-7, 20, 21.

Ascending the throne following the assassination of his father, Alexander, two years later when in his early twenties, set out to conquer the world. (Dan. 8:5) This dashing young military strategist deployed his comparatively small army in deep-ranked phalanx formation, a tactic introduced by his father and which he developed to a high degree of efficiency. Rather than pursuing the fleeing Persians after two decisive victories in Asia Minor (the first at the Granicus River; the second on the plain of Issus, where a great Persian army estimated at half a million met utter defeat), Alexander turned his attention to the island city of Tyre. Centuries earlier it had been foretold that the walls, towers, houses, and the very dust of Tyre would be pitched into the sea. (Ezek. 26:4, 12) It is, therefore, quite significant that Alexander took the rubble of the old mainland city destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar some years before and built with it a half-mile (.8 kilometer) causeway out to the island city. The pounding by his navy and engines of war destroyed that proud mistress of the sea in July 332 B.C.E.

Jerusalem, on the other hand, opened its gates in surrender and (if we are to believe Josephus) the high priest showed Alexander the book of Daniel’s prophecy, presumably chapter 8, where a mighty Greek king would subdue and conquer the Persian Empire. Thereupon, Alexander spared Jerusalem and pushed S into Egypt, where he was greeted as a deliverer. There he founded the city of Alexandria, the seat of learning where the Septuagint version was made. Looking eastward, Alexander returned from Egypt through Palestine, and with 47,000 men overpowered a reorganized Persian army of 1,000,000 near Gaugamela. In quick succession Darius III was murdered by one-time friends, Babylon surrendered, and Alexander pushed on to secure Susa and Persepolis. From there he continued his campaign into India before looking westward again.

POST-CONQUEST EVENTS

Alexander had great plans for rebuilding Babylon and making it his capital, but they were never realized. As Daniel had foretold, he was cut down and broken in death. (Dan. 8:8) Alexander’s ambition to rebuild Babylon failed to materialize not simply because he suddenly died of malarial fever complicated by his reckless living in the prime of life, at thirty-two, in 323 B.C.E.; Jehovah had determined long before that Babylon would never be rebuilt.—Jer. 50:35-40.

During his short career Alexander married Roxana, the daughter of the conquered Bactrian king, and also Statire, a daughter of the Persian king Darius III. By Roxana he had a son who was named Alexander (Allou). And by a certain Barsine he had an illegitimate son named Heracles (Hercules). However, the prophecy of Daniel had foretold that “not to his posterity” would his empire be left; so it was that all Alexander’s family and heirs were done away with before many years passed. (Dan. 11:3, 4) Furthermore, it was written: “And that one having been broken, so that there were four that finally stood up instead of it, there are four kingdoms from his nation that will stand up, but not with his power.” (Dan. 8:22) It was, therefore, no mere historical coincidence that the empire was divided among four of Alexander’s generals: Seleucus Nicator taking Mesopotamia and Syria; Cassander, Macedonia and Greece; Ptolemy Lagus, Egypt and Palestine; and Lysimachus, Thrace and Asia Minor.

Alexander’s conquest left its greatest mark on history by spreading the Greek language and culture far and wide. Common or koi·neʹ Greek became the international language, hence the latter portion of the Bible was written in koi·neʹ Greek rather than Hebrew.

2. Son of Simon of Cyrene and brother of Rufus. Their father was compelled to carry Jesus’ torture stake.—Mark 15:21; Luke 23:26.

3. A relative of chief priest Annas present at the trial of Peter and John.—Acts 4:6.

4. A Jew in Ephesus present when the silversmiths stirred up a riot against Paul. When Alexander attempted to speak to them, the wild mob shouted him down.—Acts 19:33, 34.

5. One who, with Hymenaeus, ‘experienced shipwreck concerning his faith,’ and was disfellowshiped because of his blasphemy. (1 Tim. 1:19, 20) Possibly the same as 6, below.

6. The coppersmith against whom Timothy was warned because of inflicting “many injuries” on Paul.—2 Tim. 4:14, 15.

ALEXANDRIA

(Al·ex·anʹdri·a).

Chief city and famed metropolis of Egypt during the time of Jesus and his apostles. Modern Alexandria (called in Arabic al-Iskandariyah) stands on the ancient site and is a seaport but has little of the ancient splendor.

Only brief reference is made to Alexandria in the Bible. Among those disputing with Stephen before his trial were “Alexandrians,” or Jews from Alexandria. Alexandria was the native city of the eloquent Apollos. And two of the ships on which Paul traveled as a prisoner headed for Rome were out of Alexandria doubtless large grain ships of the great Alexandrian fleet that crossed the Mediterranean Sea to Puteoli, Italy, though at times doing coastwise sailing to the ports of Asia Minor.—Acts 6:9; 18:24; 27:6; 28:11

The city derived its name from Alexander the Great, who ordered it to be built in 332 B.C.E. In time it became the principal city of Egypt, and under the Ptolemies, the Hellenistic kings of Egypt, Alexandria was made Egypt’s capital. It remained such when Rome took control in 30 B.C.E. and served as the administrative center of Egypt on through the Roman and Byzantine epochs down to the Arabic conquest in the seventh century C.E.

LOCATION AND DESCRIPTION

Its site was well chosen. To the W of the fan-shaped Nile delta, Lake Mareotis lies close to the Mediterranean, with a narrow isthmus separating it from the sea. Alexandria was built on this stretch of land where previously the small village of Rakotis stood. Since Lake Mareotis was then connected with the Canopic branch of the Nile (the westernmost of the ancient Nile’s seven mouths), this meant that the city could serve as a port on both sides of the isthmus, with oceangoing vessels docking on the N and Egyptian Nile boats on the S. Just N of the city the small island of Pharos lay a short distance into the Mediterranean and a mole or causeway was constructed from the mainland to the middle of the island and was called the Heptastadion (meaning “Seven Stadia,” the length of the causeway [about seven-eighths of a Roman mile or 1.3 km.]). This causeway also served to divide the harbor into two spacious basins. At the E of the island of Pharos a four-hundred-foot-high (121.9 meters) lighthouse was built, considered one of the seven wonders of the ancient world.

About fifteen miles (24 kilometers) long and only about one mile (1.6 kilometers) broad, Alexandria was well laid out in city-block form with regular broad streets, in places lined with colonnades. One-third of the area is said to have been occupied by palaces and public grounds. Its splendor and its magnificent buildings were acclaimed by ancient writers. Particularly famous was its great library associated with the Alexandrian “Museum,” a sort of state-sponsored university where all branches of arts and sciences were studied by scholars of many countries. The library had been founded and enlarged under the first two Ptolemies and sought to collect copies of all books written in Greek and Latin. Eventually it was said to possess some 900,000 volumes or papyrus rolls. However the library was heavily damaged by fire during Julius Caesar’s time and was finally destroyed by the Arabs in the seventh century C.E.

JEWISH CENTER

It was here in Alexandria that the first translation of the Hebrew Scriptures was made: the Greek Septuagint version produced by Alexandrian Jews, evidently beginning during the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus (285-246 B.C.E).

The Jews for long had formed a sizable portion of the population of Alexandria, which, at its height reached about 800,000 persons. Many of the Jews were descendants of the refugees who fled to Egypt after Jerusalem’s fall in 607 B.C.E. In Tiberius’ time they were said to compose about one-third of the city’s total population. With their own section or quarter called Regio Judæorum, the Jews were allowed to live according to their own laws and have their own governor or Alabarch. From the start they had been granted equal rights with the Greeks. Their commercial ability contributed to the economy of Alexandria, which, situated as it was at a strategic point or trade with three continents, came to rival Rome in its wealth. It was a great banking center and from its industries and ports flowed papyrus, glass, perfumes, woven fabrics, wheat and other commodities.

CHRISTIAN ACTIVITY

At what date or in what manner Christianity was introduced to Alexandria is not known. Tradition credits Mark the evangelizer with this, but proof is lacking. In the second century C.E. a center of Christian study was prominent there and two of its leaders, Clement and his disciple Origen, have provided valuable testimony as to the canonicity of the writings of the Christian Greek Scriptures. Similar evidence comes from the later bishop of Alexandria, Athanasius, in the fourth century C.E.

[Map on page 50]

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ANCIENT ALEXANDRIA

Mediterranean

Canal

Pharos Is.

Lighthouse

Heptastadion

Museum and Library

Lake Mareotis

Canal

ALIEN RESIDENT

[Heb., ger].

In its general meaning the Hebrew noun ger refers to anyone residing as an alien outside his native land and who is restricted in civil rights. He may or may not have religious connections with the natives of the land in which he resides. Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and their descendants were referred to as such before they were given legal title to the Promised Land.—Gen. 15:13; 17:8; Deut. 23:7.