that the sound value of the letter is represented by the initial letter of the following word, not that the letter’s form resembles in any sense the shape or characteristics of the object identified by that word.

There is no sound basis for the theory that the alphabet is the result of a gradual evolution through pictographic, ideographic, or syllabic writings. Although the ancient Egyptians eventually used a number of their phonetic signs to stand for specific consonants, they never did isolate them as a distinct alphabet, and they continued to use their ideograms and syllabic phonograms until the time of the Common Era. Thereafter they adopted the Greek alphabet. There is no history of a pictographic writing independently developing into an alphabet. In addition to the case of the Egyptian writing, other peoples, such as the Mayas, evidently employed pictographic writing for millenniums, with no evolution into an alphabet. Till this day the Chinese have not developed an alphabet from their originally pictographic writing.

LATER DEVELOPMENTS

Referring to the one original alphabet, Dr. Diringer shows that other peoples or civilizations later developed their own variations of that basic alphabetic script which variations, with the passing of time, eventually came to be almost unrecognizable in their relation to other members of the same family (as well as to the original script). He adds: “Thus, the Brahmi script, the great mother-script of India, the Korean alphabet, the Mongolian scripts are derived from the same source as the Greek, the Latin, the Runic, the Hebrew, the Arabic, and the Russian alphabets, although it is practically impossible for a layman to see a real resemblance between them.”—The Story of the Aleph Beth, p. 39.

Following the captivity in Babylon the Aramaic style of letters was adopted by the Jews and from this developed the square style of letters characteristic of the modern Hebrew alphabet. Nevertheless, there is evidence indicating that the early Hebrew script continued to be used in postexilic times.

The Greek alphabet is derived from the Semitic alphabet. The Greeks made a valuable addition to it in that they took the surplus letters for which they had no corresponding consonants (ʼaʹleph, heʼ, hheth, ʽaʹyin, waw, and yohdh) and employed these to represent the vowel sounds a, e (short), e (long), o, y, i. Of the two styles of Greek writing the Eastern and the Western, the latter became the source of the Latin alphabet and, in turn, of our English alphabet.—See the individual letters by name; also WRITING.

ALPHAEUS

(Al·phaeʹus) [perhaps, leader or chief]

1. The father of the apostle Matthew Levi, the tax collector.—Matt. 9:9; Mark 2:14.

2. The father of James the Less, the ninth listed of the twelve apostles. (Matt. 10:3; Mark 3:18; Luke 6:15; Acts 1:13) Many authorities are supported by tradition in the general belief that Alphaeus was the same person as Clopas (John 19:25), which would also make him the husband of “the other Mary.” (Matt. 27:56; 28:1; Mark 15:40; 16:1; Luke 24:10) Either a variation in pronunciation of the root word, or the individual’s having had two names, a common thing in those days, would explain this difference.

ALTAR

[Heb. and Gr., “place of sacrifice”].

Basically, a raised structure or place on which sacrifices are offered or incense is burned in worship of the true God or of another deity. The first mention of an altar occurs after the flood when “Noah began to build an altar to Jehovah” and offered burnt offerings thereon. (Gen. 8:20) The only offerings mentioned prior to the Flood were those of Cain and Abel and, though it is likely that they did so, it is not stated whether they used altars or not.—Gen. 4:3, 4.

Abraham built an altar at Shechem (Gen. 12:7) at a point between Bethel and Ai (12:8; 13:3), at Hebron (13:18), and also at Mount Moriah, where he sacrificed a ram given him by God in substitution for Isaac. (22:9-13) Only in this last case is a sacrifice specifically mentioned as being offered on these altars by Abraham. However, the basic meaning of the Hebrew word indicates that offerings were likely made in each case. Isaac later built an altar at Beer-sheba (26:23, 25) and Jacob built altars at Shechem and at Bethel. (33:18, 20; 35:1, 3, 7) These altars made by the patriarchs were doubtless of the type later mentioned by God in the Law covenant, either mounds of earth or platforms made up of natural (unhewn) stones.—Ex. 20:24, 25.

Following the exodus from Egypt, Moses first constructed an altar following the victory over Amalek, naming it Jehovah-nissi (Jehovah is my signal, or, perhaps, Jehovah is my refuge). (Ex. 17:15, 16) At the making of the Law covenant with Israel an altar was built by Moses at the foot of Mount Sinai and sacrifices were offered up on it. Blood from the sacrifices was sprinkled on the altar, on the book and on the people, thereby validating and putting in force the covenant.—Ex. 24:4-8; Heb. 9:17-20.

TABERNACLE ALTARS

With the setting up of the tabernacle, two altars were constructed according to divine pattern. The altar of burnt offering (also called the “altar of copper” [Ex. 39:39]) was made of acacia wood in the form of a hollow chest, apparently without top or bottom. It was about seven and a quarter feet (2.2 meters) square and about four and a third feet (1.3 meters) high with “horns” projecting from the upper four corners. All its surfaces were overlaid with copper. A grating or network of copper was placed below the altar’s rim “down within,” “toward the center.” Four rings were placed at the four extremities near the grating, and these appear to be the same rings through which the two copper-sheathed acacia-wood poles were passed for carrying the altar. This might mean that a slot was cut through two sides of the altar allowing for a flat grating to be inserted, with the rings extending out on both sides. There is considerable difference of opinion among scholars on the subject, and many consider it likely that two sets of rings were involved, the second set, for insertion of the carrying poles, being attached directly to the outside of the altar. Copper equipment was made in the form of cans and shovels for the ashes, bowls for catching the blood of the animals forks for handling the flesh, and fire holders. All of this was made by Bezalel and Oholiab.—Ex. 27:1–8; 31:2, 6, 8, 9; 38:1-7, 30; Num. 4:14.

This copper altar for burnt offerings was placed before the entrance of the tabernacle. (Ex. 40:6, 29) While it was of relatively low height, thus not necessarily requiring a means of approach, for ease of handling the sacrifices placed within it, the earth may have been raised around it, or there may have been a ramp leading up to it. (Compare Leviticus 9:22, which states that Aaron “came down” from making offerings.) Since the animal was sacrificed “at the side of the altar to the north” (Lev. 1:11), the “place for the fatty ashes” removed from the altar was to the E (Lev. 1:16), and the basin of copper for washing was located to the W (Ex. 30:18), this would logically leave the S as the open side on which such a means of approach might be placed.

Altar of incense

The altar of incense (also called the “altar of gold” [Ex. 39:38]) was likewise made of acacia wood, the top and sides being overlaid with gold. A border of gold ran around the top. The altar measured about 17.5 inches (44.5 centimeters) square and about 2 feet 11 inches (89 centimeters) high, and also had “horns” extending out from the four top corners. Two gold rings were made for the insertion of the acacia carrying poles overlaid with gold, and these rings were placed underneath the gold border on opposite sides of the altar. (Ex. 30:1-5; 37:25-28) A special incense was burned on this altar twice daily, in the morning and in the evening. (Ex. 30:7-9, 34-38) The use of a censer or a fire holder is elsewhere mentioned for burning incense and evidently such was employed also in connection with the altar of incense. (Lev. 16:12, 13; Heb. 9:4; Rev. 8:5; compare 2 Chronicles 26:16, 19.) The position of the altar of incense was within the tabernacle just before the curtain of the Most Holy so that it is spoken of as being “before the ark of the testimony.”—Ex. 30:1, 6; 40:5, 26, 27.

Sanctification and use of tabernacle altars

At the time of the installation ceremonies, both altars were anointed and sanctified. (Ex. 40:9, 10) At that time, as also in subsequent sacrifices of certain sin offerings, blood of the sacrificed animal was put upon the horns of the altar of burnt offering and the rest was poured out at its base. (Ex. 29:12; Lev. 8:15; 9:8, 9) Some of the anointing oil and blood on the altar was spattered upon Aaron and his sons and their garments to sanctify them toward the conclusion of the installation ceremony. (Lev. 8:30) In all, seven days were required for the sanctification of the altar of burnt offering. (Ex. 29:37) In other burnt offerings, communion sacrifices and guilt offerings the blood was sprinkled about upon the altar, while the blood of fowls sacrificed was spattered or drained at the side of the altar. (Lev. 1:5-17; 3:2-5; 5:7-9; 7:2) Grain offerings were made to smoke upon the altar as a “restful odor” to Jehovah. (Lev. 2:2-12) Remaining portions of the grain offering were eaten by the high priest and his sons alongside the altar. (Lev. 10:12) Annually on the atonement day the altar was cleansed and sanctified by the high priest’s placing some of the sacrificial animals’ blood on the horns of the altar and by spattering it seven times upon the altar.—Lev. 16:18, 19.

In all the animal sacrifices presented, portions of the animal were made to smoke upon the altar, and for this purpose a fire was maintained on the altar and was never allowed to go out. (Lev. 6:9-13) From here the fire was obtained for the burning of incense. (Num. 16:46) Only Aaron and those of his descendants who were free from defects were permitted to serve at the altar. (Lev. 21:21-23) The other Levites were only assistants. Any man not of the seed of Aaron drawing near was to be put to death. (Num. 16:40; 18:1-7) Korah and his assembly were destroyed for failing to recognize this divine assignment and the copper fire holders that they had taken were made into thin metal plates and overlaid on the altar as a sign that no one not of the offspring of Aaron should draw near.—Num. 16:1-11, 16-18, 36-40.

Once a year the golden altar of incense was also atoned for by the placing of sacrificial blood upon its horns. Other occasions in which it was so treated were in the sin offerings made for members of the priesthood.—Ex. 30:10; Lev. 4:7.

When being transported by the sons of Kohath both the altar of incense offerings and the altar of burnt offerings were covered, the first with a blue cloth and sealskins, the second with a reddish-purple wool cloth and sealskins.—Num. 4:11-14.

TEMPLE ALTARS

Prior to the dedication of Solomon’s temple, the copper altar made in the wilderness served for Israel’s sacrificial offerings at the high place in Gibeon. (1 Ki. 3:4; 1 Chron. 16:39, 40; 21:29, 30; 2 Chron. 1:3-6) The copper altar thereafter made for the temple covered an area sixteen times as large as the one made by Bezalel, measuring about 29 feet 2 inches (8.9 meters) square and about 14 feet 7 inches (4.5 meters) high. (2 Chron. 4:1) In view of its height some means of approach was essential. God’s law prohibited the use of steps to the altar to prevent exposure of nakedness. (Ex. 20:26) Some believe that the linen drawers worn by Aaron and his sons served to obviate this command and thus make steps allowable. (Ex. 28:42, 43) However, it seems likely that an inclined ramp was used to approach the top of the altar of burnt offering. Josephus (Wars of the Jews, Book V, chap. V, par. 6) indicates that such an approach was used for the temple altar later built by Herod. If the arrangement of the altar of the temple followed that of the tabernacle, the ramp was probably on the S side of the altar. The “molten sea” in which the sacrifices were washed would thus be convenient, as it also lay toward the S. In other respects the altar constructed for the temple apparently was modeled after that of the tabernacle and no detailed description of it is given.

It was located where David had earlier built his temporary altar on Mount Moriah. (2 Sam. 24:21, 25; 1 Chron. 21:26; 2 Chron. 8:12; 15:8) This is also traditionally held to have been the location where Abraham had attempted to offer up Isaac. (Gen. 22:2) The blood of sacrificial animals was poured out at the altar’s base, and it is likely that some kind of conduit existed for carrying the blood away from the temple area. Herod’s temple is reported to have had such a conduit connected with the SW horn of the altar (compare Zechariah 9:15) and, in the rock of the temple area where the altar is believed to have stood, an opening has been found that leads to an underground channel going out to the Kidron valley.

The altar of incense for the temple was made of cedarwood, but this seems to be the only difference between it and that of the tabernacle. It was likewise overlaid with gold.—1 Ki. 6:20, 22; 7:48; 1 Chron. 28:18; 2 Chron. 4:19.

At the temple inauguration Solomon’s prayer was offered before the altar of burnt offering, and at its conclusion fire came down from the heavens and consumed the sacrifices on the altar. (2 Chron. 6:12, 13; 7:1-3) Despite the fact that it covered an area of over 850 square feet (79.2 square meters), this copper altar proved too small for the immense quantity of sacrifices made then and so a portion of the courtyard was sanctified for that purpose.—1 Ki. 8:62-64.

In the latter part of Solomon’s reign, and in the reigns of Rehoboam and Abijam, the altar of burnt offerings came into neglect so that King Asa found it necessary to renew it. (2 Chron. 15:8) King Uzziah was stricken with leprosy for attempting to burn incense on the golden altar of incense. (2 Chron. 26:16-19) King Ahaz moved the copper altar of burnt offering to one side and put a pagan altar in its place. (2 Ki. 16:14) His son Hezekiah, however, had the copper altar and its utensils cleansed, sanctified, and restored to service.—2 Chron. 29:18-24, 27.

POSTEXILIC ALTARS

The first thing built in Jerusalem by the returning exiles under Zerubbabel and high priest Jeshua was the altar for burnt offerings. (Ezra 3:2-6) In due time a new altar of incense was also made.

The Syrian king Antiochus Epiphanes carried off the golden altar of incense and two years later (168 B.C.E.) he built an altar over the great altar of Jehovah and offered up a sacrifice to Zeus thereon. (1 Maccabees 1:20-64) Judas Maccabaeus thereafter built a new altar of unhewn stones and also restored the altar of incense.—1 Maccabees 4:44-49.

The altar of burnt offerings of Herod’s temple was made of unhewn stones, and, according to Josephus (Wars of the Jews, Book V, chap. V, par. 6), was fifty cubits square and fifteen cubits high, though the Jewish Mishnah gives smaller dimensions for it. It was to this altar, therefore, that Jesus made reference in his day. (Matt. 5:23, 24; 23:18-20) The altar of incense of that temple is not described, but Luke 1:11 shows that an angel was standing to the right of it when he appeared to John’s father Zechariah.

ALTAR OF EZEKIEL’S TEMPLE

In the visionary temple seen by Ezekiel the altar for