Moses viewed the land of Canaan. (2 Maccabees 2:1-16) The tabernacle had, of course, been replaced by the temple some 420 years previously.

Various texts are employed in Catholic dogma as support for doctrines such as punishment after death (2 Maccabees 6:26); intercession by the saints (15:12-16); and the propriety of prayers for the dead (12:41-46).

In its introduction to the Maccabees, The Jerusalem Bible says concerning Second Maccabees: “The style is that of hellenistic writers, though not of the best: at times it is turgid, frequently pompous.” The writer of Second Maccabees makes no pretense of writing under divine inspiration and devotes part of the second chapter to justifying his choice of the particular method used in handling the subject material. (2 Maccabees 2:24-32) He concludes his work by saying: “Here, then, I will make an end of writing; if it has been done workmanly, and in historian’s fashion, none better pleased than I; if it is of little merit, I must be humoured none the less.”—2 Maccabees 15:38, 39, Msgr. Knox’ translation.

The book was evidently written in Greek sometime between 134 B.C.E. and the fall of Jerusalem in 70 C.E.

LATER APOCRYPHAL WORKS

Particularly from the second century C.E. forward there has developed an immense body of writings making claim to divine inspiration and canonicity and pretending to relate to the Christian faith. Frequently referred to as the “Apocryphal New Testament,” they represent efforts at imitating the Gospels, Acts, letters and the revelations contained in the canonical books of the Christian Greek Scriptures. A large number of these are known only through fragments extant or by quotations from them or allusions to them by other writers.

These writings manifest an attempt to provide information that the inspired writings deliberately omit, such as the activities and events relating to Jesus’ life from his early childhood on up to the time of his baptism, or an effort to manufacture support for doctrines or traditions that find no basis in the Bible or are in contradiction to it. Thus the so-called “Gospel of Thomas” and the “Protevangelium of James” are filled with fanciful accounts of miracles supposedly wrought by Jesus in his childhood. But the whole effect of the picture they draw of him is to cause Jesus to appear as a capricious and petulant child endowed with impressive powers. (Compare the genuine account at Luke 2:51, 52.) The apocryphal “Acts,” such as the “Acts of Paul” and the “Acts of Peter,” lay heavy stress on complete abstinence from sexual relations and even depict the apostles as urging women to separate from their husbands, thus contradicting Paul’s authentic counsel at 1 Corinthians 7.

Commenting on such post-apostolic apocryphal writings, The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible (Vol. I, p. 166) states: “Many of them are trivial, some are highly theatrical, some are disgusting, even loathsome.” Funk and Wagnalls’ New Standard Bible Dictionary (p. 56) comments: “They have been the fruitful source of sacred legends and ecclesiastical traditions. It is to these books that we must look for the origin of some of the dogmas of the Roman Catholic Church.”

Just as the earlier apocryphal writings were excluded from among the accepted pre-Christian Hebrew Scriptures, so also these later apocryphal writings were not accepted as inspired nor included as canonical in the earliest collections or catalogues of the Christian Greek Scriptures.—See CANON.

APOLLONIA

(Ap·ol·loʹni·a) [pertaining to Apollo, place of Apollo].

A city of Macedonia, named after the Greek sun-god Apollo, as were a number of other cities in the Mediterranean area. It was situated in the district of Mygdonia about thirty miles (48 kilometers) from Amphipolis and thirty-eight miles (61 kilometers) from Thessalonica, or about one day’s travel from each. It lay on the great Roman highway Via Egnatia, S of Lake Bolbe, but does not receive prominence in history. Paul and Silas passed through it on Paul’s second missionary tour, most likely in the spring or early summer of the year 50 C.E.—Acts 17:1.

APOLLOS

(A·polʹlos) [abbreviation of Apollonius; a destroyer].

A Jew of Alexandria, Egypt, possessed of notable eloquence in speaking and a sound knowledge of the Hebrew Scriptures. He seems to have been witnessed to by disciples of John the Baptist or else by Christian witnesses prior to Pentecost, since he was “acquainted with only the baptism of John.” (Acts 18:24, 25) Yet he was fired with conviction and, on arriving in Ephesus about 52 C.E., he began witnessing in the local synagogue. This brought him in contact with Aquila and Priscilla, who filled in some of the gaps in his understanding of Christian teaching. From Ephesus he went over to Achaia, supplied with a letter of introduction, and there he seems to have centered his activity in Corinth, where Paul had preceded him. His intensity and his powerful Scriptural confutations of the arguments of the unbelieving Jews proved of great aid to the brothers there. He thus ‘watered what Paul had planted.’—Acts 18:26-28; 19:1; 1 Cor. 3:6.

Unfortunately, by the time Paul wrote his first letter to the Corinthians (about 55 C.E.), factions had developed in the Corinth congregation, with some viewing the eloquent Apollos as their leader, while others favored Paul or Peter or held only to Christ. (1 Cor. 1:10-12) Paul’s letter corrected their wrong thinking, showing the vital need for unity and the relative unimportance of individuals as only ministers serving under God and Christ. (1 Cor. 3:4-9, 21-23; 4:6, 7) It appears that Apollos must then have been in or near Ephesus, where Paul evidently wrote First Corinthians, for Paul tells of his urging Apollos to visit the Corinth congregation. (1 Cor. 16:12) Apollos’ reluctance to go may have been due to the improper attitudes existing in Corinth or simply due to having a field of activity that he felt required his continued attention a while longer. At any rate, Paul’s brief statement shows that these two active missionaries had not allowed matters to produce a breach in their own unity. The final mention of Apollos is at Titus 3:13, where Paul asks Titus, then in Crete, to supply Apollos’ needs for a certain trip.

APOLLYON

(A·polʹly·on).

The Greek name used by the apostle John to translate the Hebrew “Abaddon” at Revelation 9:11. Apollyon means “Destroyer,” and is given as the name of the “angel of the abyss.” Though most reference works apply this name to some evil personage or force, the whole setting of the apocalyptic vision is to the contrary, as it consistently portrays angels being used by God to bring woes upon His enemies.

The use of the related verb a·polʹly·mi illustrates this, as at James 4:12, which says of God: “One there is that is lawgiver and judge, he who is able to save and to destroy.” (Compare Matthew 10:28.) The unclean spirit cast out of a man by Jesus in a synagogue at Capernaum acknowledged Jesus as God’s agent and said: “What have we to do with you, Jesus you Nazarene? Did you come to destroy us?” (Mark 1:24; Luke 4:34) Jesus warned unrepentant opposers among his listeners of the danger of being destroyed. (Luke 13:3-5; 20:16) These and other texts point to the glorified Christ Jesus as the one most likely referred to by this title.—Compare Revelation 19:11-16; Luke 8:31; see ABADDON.

APOSTASY

(Gr., a·po·sta·siʹa).

This term in Greek comes from the verb a·phiʹste·mi and means, literally, “a standing away from” but has the sense of “desertion, abandonment or rebellion.” In classical Greek it was used to refer to political defection, and the verb is evidently employed in this sense at Acts 5:37, concerning Judas the Galilean who “drew off” (a·peʹste·se, form of a·phiʹste·mi) followers. The Greek Septuagint uses the term at Genesis 14:4 with reference to such a rebellion. However, in the Christian Greek Scriptures it is used primarily with regard to religious defection; a withdrawal or abandonment of the true cause, worship and service of God, and hence an abandonment of what one has previously professed and a total desertion of principles or faith. The religious leaders of Jerusalem charged Paul with such an apostasy against the Mosaic law.—Acts 21:21.

It may properly be said that God’s adversary was the first apostate, as indicated by the name “Satan.” He caused the first human pair to apostatize. (Gen. 3; John 8:44) Following the Flood there was a turning away from the words of the God of Noah. (Gen. 11:1-9) Job later found it necessary to defend himself against the charge of apostasy on the part of his three supposed comforters. (Job 8:13; 15:34; 20:5) In his defense Job showed that God grants no audience to the apostate (13:16), also, the hopeless state of one cut off in apostasy. (27:8; compare also Elihu’s statement at 34:27, 30; 36:13.) In these cases the Hebrew word hha·nephʹ is used, meaning “to be alienated from God” or “inclined away from the right relation to God,” or, as a verb, “to pollute, lead to apostasy.”—Koehler-Baumgartner, Lexicon in Veteris Testamenti Libros, p. 317.

APOSTASY IN ISRAEL

The first two commandments of the Law condemned all apostasy. (Ex. 20:3-6) And before Israel’s entry into the Promised Land they were warned against the grave danger of apostasy resulting from marriages with the people of the land. (Deut. 7:3, 4) Even though a person who was inciting others to apostasy was a close relative or marriage mate, he was to be put to death for having “spoken of revolt against Jehovah your God.” (Deut. 13:1-15) The tribes of Reuben, Gad and Manasseh were quick to exonerate themselves of a charge of apostasy that arose due to their construction of an altar.—Josh. 22:21-29.

Many of the kings of Israel and of Judah followed an apostate course; for example, Saul (1 Sam. 15:11; 28:6, 7), Jeroboam (1 Ki. 12:28-32), Ahab (1 Ki. 16:30-33), Ahaziah (1 Ki. 22:51-53), Jehoram (2 Chron. 21:6-15), Ahaz (2 Chron. 28:1-4), and Amon (2 Chron. 33:22, 23). In due time a nation of apostates developed due to the people’s listening to apostate priests and prophets (Jer. 23:11, 15) and other unprincipled men who, by smooth words and false sayings, led them into loose conduct, immorality and desertion of Jehovah, “the source of living water.” (Isa. 10:6; 32:6, 7; Jer. 3:1; 17:3) According to Isaiah 24:5, the very land became “polluted [hhan·phahʹ] under its inhabitants, for they have bypassed the laws, changed the regulation, broken the indefinitely lasting covenant.” No mercy was to be granted them in the predicted destruction.—Isa. 9:17; 33:11-14; Zeph. 1:4-6.

APOSTASY FROM CHRISTIANITY

An apostasy among professed Christians was foretold by the apostle Paul at 2 Thessalonians 2:3. He specifically mentioned certain apostates, such as Hymenaeus, Alexander and Philetus. (1 Tim. 1:19, 20; 2 Tim. 2:16-19) Among the varied causes of apostasy set forth in apostolic warnings were: lack of faith (Heb. 3:12), lack of endurance in the face of persecution (Heb. 10:32-39), abandonment of right moral standards (2 Pet. 2:15-22), the heeding of the “counterfeit words” of false teachers and “misleading inspired utterances” (2 Pet. 2:1-3; 1 Tim. 4:1-3; 2 Tim. 2:16-19; compare Proverbs 11:9), and trying “to be declared righteous by means of law.” (Gal. 5:2-4) Such ones willfully abandoning the Christian congregation thereby become part of the “antichrist.” (1 John 2:18, 19) As with the apostate Israelites, destruction is likewise foretold for apostates from the Christian congregation.—2 Pet. 2:1; Heb. 6:4-8.

During the period of persecution that the early Christian congregation experienced at the hands of the Roman Empire, professed Christians were at times induced to deny their Christian discipleship, and those who did so were required to signify their apostasy by making an incense offering before some pagan god or by openly blaspheming the name of Christ.

It is evident that there is a distinction between a ‘falling’ due to weakness and the ‘falling away’ that constitutes apostasy. The latter implies a definite and willful withdrawal from the path of righteousness. (1 John 3:4-8; 5:16, 17) Whatever its apparent basis, whether intellectual, moral or spiritual, it constitutes a rebellion against God and a rejection of his Word of truth.—2 Thess. 2:3, 4; see MAN or LAWLESSNESS.

APOSTLE

APOSTLE [Gr., a·poʹsto·los; one sent forth to represent the sender; envoy].

This word is derived from the common Greek verb a·po·stelʹlein, meaning simply “to send forth or off.” Its basic sense is clearly illustrated in Jesus’ statement: “A slave is not greater than his master, nor is one that is sent forth [a·poʹsto·los] greater than one that sent him.” (John 13:16) In this sense the word also applies to Christ Jesus as the “apostle and high priest whom we confess.” (Heb. 3:1; compare Matthew 10:40; 15:24; Luke 4:18, 43; 9:48; 10:16; John 3:17; 5:36, 38; 6:29, 57; 7:29; 8:42; 10:36; 11:42; 17:3, 8, 18, 21-25; 20:21.) Jesus was sent forth by God as his appointed and commissioned representative.

The term is principally applied, however, to those disciples whom Jesus personally selected as a body of twelve appointed representatives. The names of the original twelve selected are given at Matthew 10:2-4; Mark 3:16-19 and Luke 6:13-16. One of the original twelve, Judas Iscariot, proved to be a traitor, thereby fulfilling earlier prophecies. (Ps. 41:9; 109:8) The remaining eleven faithful apostles are again listed at Acts 1:13.

Some of the apostles had been disciples of John the Baptist before becoming Jesus’ disciples. (John 1:35-42) Eleven of them were evidently Galileans (Acts 2:7), Judas Iscariot being considered the sole Judean. They were from the working class; four were definitely fisherman by trade; one had been a tax collector. (Matt. 4:18-21; 9:9-13) At least two of them appear to have been cousins of Jesus (James and John, the sons of Zebedee). They were men who were viewed by the religious leaders as “unlettered and ordinary,” indicating that their education was elementary and not from the schools of higher learning. A number of them, including Peter (Cephas), were married men.—Acts 4:13; 1 Cor. 9:5.

Of the twelve, Peter, James and John seem to have enjoyed the closest relationship with Jesus. They alone witnessed the resurrection of Jairus’ daughter (Mark 5:35-43) and the transfiguration of Jesus (Matt. 17:1, 2), and accompanied him farther into the Garden of Gethsemane than the other apostles on the night of his arrest. (Mark 14:32, 33) A special affinity appears to have existed between Jesus and John, and John is accepted as being the one referred to as “the disciple whom Jesus used to love.”—John 21:20-24; 13:23.

SELECTION AND EARLY MINISTRY

The twelve were selected out of a larger group of disciples and named as “apostles” by Jesus, “that they might continue with him and that he might send them out [a·po·stelʹlei] to preach and to have authority to expel the demons.” (Mark 3:13-15) Thereafter they did “continue with him” in very close association during the remainder of his earthly ministry, receiving extensive personal instruction and ministerial training. (Matt. 10:1-42; Luke 8:1) Since they continued to be Jesus’ pupils, they were still called “disciples,” particularly until Pentecost. (Matt. 11:1; 14:26; 20:17;