sell himself into slavery, on a temporary basis. (Lev. 25:25-28, 39-54) So as not to put a hardship on the poor, the Law permitted them to present less valuable offerings at the sanctuary.—Lev. 12:8; 14:21, 22; 27:8.

God’s law prescribed equal justice for rich and poor alike, not favoring either one because of his position. (Ex. 23:3, 6; Lev. 19:15) But as the nation of Israel lapsed into unfaithfulness, the poor suffered much oppression.—Isa. 10:1, 2; Jer. 2:34.

IN THE FIRST CENTURY C.E.

It appears that considerable poverty prevailed among the Jews in the first century C.E. Foreign domination from the time of the Babylonian exile had doubtless interfered with the application of the Mosaic law, which protected hereditary possessions. (Compare Nehemiah 9:36, 37.) The religious leaders, especially the Pharisees, were more concerned about tradition than instilling genuine love of neighbor and proper regard for aged and needy parents. (Matt. 15:5, 6; 23:23; compare Luke 10:29-32.) The money-loving Pharisees had little interest in the poor.—Luke 16:14.

Christ Jesus, though, ‘felt pity for the crowds, because they were skinned and thrown about like sheep without a shepherd.’ (Matt. 9:36) His declaring the good news to the poor and oppressed stood in such marked contrast with the attitude of the religious leaders of Judaism that it constituted one of the proofs that he was indeed the Messiah. (Matt. 11:5; Luke 4:18; 7:22) To responsive ones it also opened up the glorious privilege of inheriting the heavenly kingdom.—Matt. 5:3; Luke 6:20.

Being in a covenant relationship to God, the Jews were under obligation to assist needy fellow Israelites. (Prov. 14:21; 28:27; Isa. 58:6, 7; Ezek. 18:7-9) Appreciating this, Zacchaeus, upon accepting Jesus as the Messiah, exclaimed: “Look! The half of my belongings, Lord, I am giving to the poor.” (Luke 19:8) For the same reason, Christ Jesus could say: “When you spread a feast, invite poor people, crippled, lame, blind; and you will be happy, because they have nothing with which to repay you.” (Luke 14:13, 14) On another occasion he encouraged a rich young ruler: “Sell all the things you have and distribute to poor people, and you will have treasure in the heavens; and come be my follower.” (Luke 18:22) The fact that this man was unwilling to part with his possessions to aid others showed that he had no real concern for the oppressed and thus did not have the qualities required for being a disciple of Jesus.—Luke 18:23.

Jesus’ encouragement to assist the poor was in line with what he himself had done. As God’s Son in the heavens he had had everything. But “though he was rich he became poor.” As a poor man on earth he was able to redeem the human race, making available the greatest of riches, that is, the prospect for his followers to become sons of God. (2 Cor. 8:9) Additionally, other great spiritual riches became available to them.—Compare 2 Corinthians 6:10; Revelation 2:9; 3:17.

Also, while on earth, Jesus personally took an interest in the materially poor. He and his apostles had a common fund from which they gave to needy Israelites. (Matt. 26:9-11; Mark 14:5-7; John 12:5-8; 13:29) The same loving concern for the poor was manifested in later years by Christians, as they provided material assistance for their poor brothers. (Rom. 15:26; Gal. 2:10) But some did forget, making it necessary for the disciple James to reprimand them for bestowing favoritism on the rich and looking down on the poor.—Jas. 2:2-9.

Of course, only those who were deserving received material assistance. By no means was laziness encouraged. As the apostle Paul wrote to the Thessalonians: “If anyone does not want to work, neither let him eat.”—2 Thess. 3:10; see BEGGAR, BEGGING; GIFTS OF MERCY.

POPLARS

[Heb., ʽara·vimʹ (plural)].

The Hebrew name for this tree corresponds with the Arabic gharab, which continues to be used for the Euphrates poplar. Thus, although the poplar and willow are of the same genus of trees, similar in appearance, and both common to the Near East, modern lexicographers favor the poplar tree (Populus euphratica) in translation.—See Koehler-Baumgartner, Lexicon in Veteris Testamenti Libros, page 733; Brown-Driver-Briggs, A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament, page 788; The Westminster Dictionary of the Bible, page 639.

The poplar tree is very common along the banks of the Euphrates (while the willow is comparatively rare there) and thus fits well the reference at Psalm 137:1, 2, which describes the weeping Jewish captives as hanging their harps on the poplar trees. The small, crisp, heart-shaped leaves of the Euphrates poplar (also called aspen) are carried on flattened stems that hang obliquely from the main stalk, and this results in their swaying back and forth at the slightest breeze, a motion that might suggest the emotional swaying of persons weeping in grief.

Euphrates poplars are also found along the banks of rivers and streams from Syria to Palestine and particularly in the Jordan river valley. There, along with tamarisk trees, they often form dense thickets, while elsewhere they may grow to a height of from thirty to forty-five feet (9.1 to 13.7 meters). In all the Scriptural references these poplar trees are associated with water courses or ‘torrent valleys.’ They were included among the trees whose boughs were used at the Festival of Booths (Lev. 23:40); they provided cover for the mighty “Behemoth” (hippopotamus) along the river (Job 40:15, 22); and the ease with which they sprout along well-watered places is used at Isaiah 44:3, 4 to describe the rapid growth and increase resulting from Jehovah’s outpoured blessings and spirit.—See POPLARS, TORRENT VALLEY OF.

POPLARS, TORRENT VALLEY OF

At Isaiah 15:7 the prophet describes the escaping Moabites as fleeing with their goods across the “torrent valley of the poplars.” If their flight was to the S, as it seems likely to have been, this torrent valley would appear to refer to the “torrent valley of Zered” (Num. 21:12; Deut. 2:13), which acted as the frontier boundary between Moab and Edom to the S. The torrent valley of Zered is generally identified with the Wadi el-Hesa, which flows into the S end of the Dead Sea. In its lower course it is called the Seil el-Qurahi and as such passes through a small plain that is somewhat swampy in places and could thus be a suitable place for poplars to have grown.—See ZERED, TORRENT VALLEY OF.

PORATHA

(Po·raʹtha) [(perhaps of Persian origin) giving much, liberal].

One of Haman’s ten sons.—Esther 9:8, 10.

PORCH

A covered entrance to a building, or a place for waiting before entering. The Hebrew word ʼu·lamʹ basically means “the anterior part, front” and hence “vestibule, porch.” In the Hebrew Scriptures this word is not used in regard to an architectural portion of individual homes, private houses. Whether Israelite homes had a porch of some sort is difficult to determine. But the archaeological remains of some houses in Megiddo indicate that they were built around a courtyard and that “one ground floor room served as an entrance vestibule.” (The Biblical Archaeologist, May 1968, pp. 46, 48) In the Scriptures ʼu·lamʹ is applied to two of the public buildings Solomon constructed (see PORCH OF PILLARS; PORCH OF THE THRONE), the front part of Solomon’s temple and to certain parts of the gateways and temple that Ezekiel was shown in vision.

SOLOMON’S TEMPLE

While the primary portions of the temple were the Holy and Most Holy compartments, in front of the Holy (toward the E) there was a massive porch that served as an entranceway to the temple. The porch was 20 cubits (27.5 feet or 8.4 meters) long (running along the width of the temple) and 10 cubits (14.6 feet or 4.4 meters) deep. (1 Ki. 6:3) It was 120 cubits (175 feet or 53.3 meters) high. Second Chronicles 3:4 presents the height of the porch in the context of other measurements for the house, measurements that are generally accepted and that harmonize with those in First Kings. (Compare 2 Chronicles 3:3, 4 with 1 Kings 6:2, 3, 17, 20.) Thus the porch would have appeared as a tall, evidently rectangular tower that extended high above the rest of the temple building. In front of it stood two massive copper pillars named Jachin and Boaz. (1 Ki. 7:15-22; 2 Chron. 3:15-17) The porch also had doors (King Ahaz closed these up but his son Hezekiah later opened and repaired them). (2 Chron. 28:24; 29:3, 7) Especially in the morning when the sun rising in the E shone directly on it, the lofty temple porch must have been a most impressive sight.

EZEKIEL’S TEMPLE VISION

Quite a number of porches are mentioned in the vision Ezekiel had of a temple sanctuary. The temple building itself had a porch in front (toward the E), as did Solomon’s temple. However, this porch was 20 cubits (c. 34 feet or 10.4 meters, based on the long cubit [Ezek. 40:5] of about 20.4 inches) in length and 11 cubits (c. 18.7 feet or 5.7 meters) in width; the height is not stated. This porch had pillars as well as side pillars, and there was a wood canopy, probably near the top. (Ezek. 40:48, 49; 41:25, 26) Each of the three elaborate outer gateways (approaching from the E, S, and N) incorporated a porch with windows of narrowing frames. Apparently, one ascending the stairs into the gateway passed three guard chambers on each side and then, by crossing a threshold, came into the porch before entering the outer courtyard. (Ezek. 40:6-17) Each of the three inner gateways also had a porch, perhaps just as one ascended the steps and entered the gate. The porch in the gateway approached from the N contained four tables for slaughtering the whole burnt offering.—Ezek. 40:35-42.

PORCH OF PILLARS

One of the official buildings Solomon constructed in the temple area sometime after he completed the temple. (1 Ki. 7:1, 6) In view of the mention of the Porch of Pillars between comments about the House of the Forest of Lebanon and the Porch of the Throne, it is quite possible that the Porch of Pillars was S of the temple and between these other two official buildings. Thus, one coming from the S might pass through or around the House of the Forest of Lebanon and then enter the Porch of Pillars, walking through it into the Porch of the Throne.

Discussing these buildings, the Cyclopœdia by M’Clintock and Strong (Vol. VII, p. 541) observes: “There are few tasks more difficult or puzzling than the attempt to restore an ancient building of which we possess nothing but two verbal descriptions.” Hence, at best only a suggested description of the Porch of Pillars can be made, and this is based on 1 Kings 7:6, for the information Josephus gives is scanty and obscure.

The building was 50 cubits (c. 73 feet or 22 meters) long and 30 cubits (c. 44 feet or 13 meters) wide. Its very name suggests that it was made up of rows of impressive pillars. First Kings 7:6 mentions another porch in front with pillars and a canopy. Perhaps this means that one first came to a porch having an extending canopy supported by pillars. Then this porch merged right into the Porch of Pillars proper. If the dimensions given apply just to the Porch of Pillars, then the size of the canopied portion is not given.

This building may have served as a grand entranceway to the Porch of the Throne and as a place where the king conducted the ordinary business of the kingdom and received some visitors.

PORCH OF THE THRONE

An important building that Solomon constructed after the temple was completed. (1 Ki. 7:1, 7) The “porch of judgment” referred to in the text seems to be synonymous with the “Porch of the Throne.” So the “Porch of the Throne” evidently was where Solomon placed his ornate ivory and gold throne and did judging.—1 Ki. 10:18-20.

The entire description of this building is: “He made the porch of judgment; and they covered it in with cedarwood from the floor to the rafters.” (1 Ki. 7:7) The Masoretic text actually says, “from floor to floor,” leading some to believe that there was cedar from the floor of this building to the floor of the Porch of Pillars mentioned in the preceding verse. However, the Syriac Peshitta Version reads “from floor to ceiling,” and the Latin Vulgate says “from floor to top.” So, certain translators believe that the cedar was some sort of splendid paneling from the floor of the Porch to its rafters or ceiling. (NW, RS, JB, Ro) Though other architectural details are lacking, this would suggest a building not having open pillars on a side or sides, as may have been the case with the House of the Forest of Lebanon and the Porch of Pillars.

Since the Porch of the Throne is listed right after the Porch of Pillars, it is possible that this latter building served as a grand entrance to the Porch of the Throne. A person coming from the S may have had to walk through the Porch of Pillars to enter the porch of judgment.

PORCUPINE

A large rodent distinguished by its protective spines or quills. There is considerable dispute as to the exact meaning of the Hebrew word qip·podhʹ, variously rendered “bittern” (AV, Da), “hedgehog” (AT, Le) and “porcupine (s)” (AS, NW). (Isa. 14:23; 34:11; Zeph. 2:14) In the light of Hebrew etymology, G. R. Driver (Palestine Exploration Quarterly, May-October 1955, p. 137) rejects the rendering “bittern” and suggests that the Hebrew qip·podhʹ may apply both to the porcupine and to a bird. But he recommends “ruffed bustard” as a likely translation for qip·podhʹ in the above texts. Koehler (Lexicon in Veteris Testamenti Libros, p. 845) prefers “hedgehog” at Isaiah 14:23; 34:11, but “short-eared owl” at Zephaniah 2:14. That one Hebrew word may apply to two entirely different animals is illustrated by the term tin·sheʹmeth, which denotes both a flying creature, the “swan,” and a swarming creature, the “chameleon.”—Lev. 11:18, 30.

Despite the uncertainty, however, there is good basis for consistently translating qip·podhʹ as either “porcupine” or “hedgehog,” rather than “bittern.” Both older and modern lexicons generally list “hedgehog” or “porcupine” as defining qip·podhʹ in all cases. These renderings have the support of the Septuagint and the Vulgate, as well as of Hebrew etymology and related languages such as Aramaic, Arabic and Ethiopian. The fact that both the porcupine and the hedgehog roll themselves up when in danger harmonizes with the root word (meaning “to gather together or roll up”) from which qip·podhʹ is believed to be derived.

On the basis of inferences drawn from Isaiah 14:23 and Zephaniah 2:14 regarding the desolation of Babylon and Nineveh, some raise the objection that the porcupine (or the hedgehog) could not be the animal intended, since this creature does not frequent reedy pools of water, nor can it sing or climb to the top of columns. However, according to Isaiah 14:23, not the reedy pools, but Babylon was to become the possession of porcupines. Interestingly, one explorer