generous character. This coincides with his actions during the seventh year of his reign (468 B.C.E.), when Longimanus granted Ezra “all his request” in a decree that provided for silver and gold and vessels for temple use (gifts that totaled some $4,946,000 at modern values), in addition to provisions of wheat, wine, oil and salt. (Ezra 7:6, 12-23; 8:25-27) This generous contribution may explain why Artaxerxes (Longimanus) is included along with Cyrus and Darius at Ezra 6:14 as one of those whose orders contributed to the ‘building and finishing’ of the temple, although the actual construction was completed by 515 B.C.E., some forty-seven years previous. The king’s decree even authorized Ezra to appoint magistrates and judges to teach God’s law (as well as that of the king), and to use capital punishment against violators where necessary.—Ezra 7:25, 26.

ARTAXERXES LONGIMANUS’ TWENTIETH YEAR

During the twentieth year of his reign, Artaxerxes Longimanus granted permission to Nehemiah to return to Jerusalem to rebuild the walls and gates of the city. (Neh. 2:1-8) Because this edict is referred to at Daniel 9:25 as relating to the time of the promised coming of the Messiah, the date of Artaxerxes’ twentieth year has been a matter of considerable study. Whereas most secular works fix the date of the start of his reign at 465 or 464 B.C.E., there is sound reason for placing it at an earlier date, as follows:

The first year of the reign of Xerxes, father and predecessor of Longimanus, ran from December of 486 B.C.E. to the spring of 485 B.C.E. During 480-479 B.C.E. (the seventh year of his reign) he attempted an invasion of Greece but suffered defeats due to the tactics of the Athenian general Themistocles. The book of Esther (which calls him Ahasuerus) refers to the twelfth year of Xerxes’ rule (Esther 3:7) and indicates that his rule likely extended on into its thirteenth year (474 B.C.E.). Though modern historians generally extend Xerxes’ reign on to include a total of twenty-one years, and although some clay tablets referring to a sixteenth, twentieth and twenty-first year have been assigned by certain scholars to his reign, there is strong testimony to show that Xerxes’ rule ended in 474 B.C.E. and that he was then replaced by his son, Artaxerxes Longimanus.—See CHRONOLOGY.

The key to the matter relates to the flight of Athenian general Themistocles to the Persian capital, because of being accused of treason in his own land. The Greek historian Thucydides of Athens lived during the reign of Artaxerxes, and he records that Themistocles fled to Persia when Artaxerxes had but “lately come to the throne.” (See Thucydides in Book I, chapter 137.) Nepos, a Roman historian of the first century B.C.E., supports this statement, saying: “I know that most historians have related that Themistocles went over into Asia in the reign of Xerxes, but I give credence to Thucydides in preference to others, because he, of all who have left records of that period, was nearest in point of time to Themistocles, and was of the same city. Thucydides says that he went to Artaxerxes.” (Nepos, Themistocles, chap. 9) Similarly, the Greek biographer Plutarch, of the first century C.E., says: “Thucydides, and Charon of Lampsacus, say that Xerxes was dead, and that Themistocles had an interview with his son, Artaxerxes; but Ephorus, Dinon, Clitarchus, Heraclides and many others, write that he came to Xerxes. The chronological tables better agree with the account of Thucydides.”—Themistocles, c. 27; see also The Encyclopedia Americana, 1956 ed., Vol. 26, p. 507.

The weight of historical evidence, therefore, points to Themistocles’ flight as occurring in the reign of Artaxerxes, not of Xerxes. As to the date of that flight, Jerome’s Eusebius places Themistocles’ arrival in Asia in the fourth year of the 76th Olympiad (four-year periods beginning in 776 B.C.E.), that is, in the year 473/472 B.C.E. Confirming this are the annals or chronology of Diodorus the Sicilian, a Greek historian of the first century B.C.E., which place the date of Themistocles’ death in 471 B.C.E. Since after his arrival Themistocles is reported to have requested one year’s time in which to learn Persian before receiving audience with the king, it fits well that his arrival would reasonably have taken place about two years before his death or by the year 473 B.C.E. And since, as Thucydides records, Themistocles arrived when Artaxerxes had but “lately come to the throne,” then the first year of Artaxerxes’ reign evidently began in 474 B.C.E. The noted German scholar Ernst Wm. Hengstenberg (1802-1869) in his work entitled “Christology of the Old Testament” (Vol. 2, p. 395) states: “Krueger . . . places the death of Xerxes in the year 474 or 473, and the flight of Themistocles a year later.” Archbishop James Ussher, of Ireland (1581-1656), as a chronologist, also held that Artaxerxes Longimanus ascended the Persian throne in 474 B.C.E., as did the celebrated writer Vitringa (1659-1722).

Accepting the year 474 B.C.E. on this basis as the initial year of Artaxerxes’ reign, we conclude that the twentieth year of his rule should have been the year 455 B.C.E., at which time his decree sent to Palestine by Nehemiah for the rebuilding of the city of Jerusalem would go into effect, thus marking the start of the “seventy weeks” of Daniel’s prophecy. (Dan. 9:24) Hengstenberg sums up the matter in saying (Vol. 2, p. 394): “The difference [of opinion] concerns only the year of the commencement of the reign of Artaxerxes. Our problem is completely solved, when we have shown that this year falls in the year 474 before Christ. For then the twentieth year of Artaxerxes is the year 455 before Christ, according to the usual reckoning.” Undoubtedly the strongest proof for the date of 455 B.C.E. as the twentieth year of the reign of Artaxerxes, however, is the fact of the Messiah’s appearance in the year 29 C.E., and his death in 33 C.E., in fulfillment of the time period indicated in Daniel’s prophecy.—Dan. 9:25, 26; see MESSIAH.

Nehemiah 13:6 refers to the “thirty-second year of Artaxerxes,” at which time (443-442 B.C.E.) Nehemiah returned to Babylon for a time. Artaxerxes Longimanus evidently died in 424 or 423 B.C.E. (according to Babylonian Chronology 626 B.C.—A.D. 75 by Parker and Dubberstein, page 18) and was succeeded by Darius II.

ARTEMAS

(Arʹte·mas) [Gr., contraction of Artemidoros, gift of Artemis].

A companion whom Paul considered sending to Titus in Crete (Titus 3:12), perhaps as a replacement in order that Titus might join Paul in Nicopolis. Since Paul’s choice was to be between Artemas and Tychicus, Artemas was evidently well esteemed, as indicated by Paul’s remarks about Tychicus at Ephesians 6:21, 22.

ARTEMIS

(Arʹte·mis).

The Greek virgin goddess of hunting, identified by the Romans with Diana. According to classical mythology, Artemis was the daughter of Zeus and twin sister of Apollo, born of Leto as a result of an adulterous relationship with Zeus. Equipped with bow and arrows, Artemis is depicted as pursuing game, especially stags. Her worshipers believed, not only that she at times sent plagues, but also that she used her power to cause death. Additionally, healing powers were ascribed to her, and she was regarded as the protectress of the young, both of humans and animals.

Although the Greeks identified her with their own Artemis, the Artemis of Ephesus, worshiped in cities throughout Asia Minor, has little in common with the above-described Greek deity of classical mythology. (Acts 19:27) The Ephesian Artemis was a fertility goddess represented as having multiple breasts, a turreted crown and a kind of nimbus behind her head. The mummylike lower half of her body was decorated with various symbols and animals.

The Artemis worshiped at Ephesus has been closely connected with prominent goddesses of other peoples, and it is suggested that they have a common origin. A Dictionary of the Bible, edited by James Hastings, Volume I, page 605, observes: “Artemis presents such close analogies with the Phrygian Cybele, and with other feminine envisagements of the divine power in Asiatic countries, like the Cappadocian Ma, the Phoenician Astarte or Ashtaroth, the Syrian Atargatis and Mylitta, as to suggest that these are all mere varieties of one ultimate religious conception, presenting in different countries certain differences, due to varying development according to local circumstances and national character.”

The ancients ranked the temple of Artemis at Ephesus as one of the seven wonders of the world. It was an imposing structure made of cedar, cypress, white marble and gold. So sacred was it believed to be that treasures could be deposited in it without any fear of thievery, and criminals could find asylum within an area extending around the temple for a distance of about 600 feet (c. 183 meters), although this varied considerably at different periods A great number of virgin priestesses and eunuch priests served at this temple, married women not even being permitted to enter it under penalty of death.

For the great festivals held in the month of Artemision (March-April) visitors numbering up to 700,000 arrived at Ephesus from all of Asia Minor. One feature of the celebration was the religious procession, with the image of Artemis being paraded about the city in a most jubilant manner.

The making of silver shrines of Artemis proved to be a profitable enterprise for Demetrius and other Ephesian silversmiths. Therefore, when the apostle Paul’s preaching in Ephesus caused a considerable number of persons to forsake the unclean worship of this goddess, Demetrius stirred up the other craftsmen, telling them that Paul’s preaching not only posed a threat to their financial security, but also the danger existed that the worship of the great goddess Artemis would come to nothing. This culminated in a riot that was finally dispersed by the city recorder.—Acts 19:23-41; see EPHESUS.

[Picture on page 138]

Image of the goddess Artemis of Ephesus

ARUBBOTH

(A·rubʹboth) [the lattices].

A town that served as an administrative center under one of the twelve deputies assigned by King Solomon to provide food for the royal household. The son of Hesed functioned there, having oversight over Socoh and the land of Hepher. (1 Ki 4:7, 10) Arubboth is presently identified with modern ʽArrabeh, situated near Dothan and about nine miles (14.5 kilometers) N of Samaria, hence in the territory of Manasseh. Hepher lies W of it on the Plains of Sharon and Socoh to the SW.

ARUMAH

(A·ruʹmah) [height].

A town in the territory of Ephraim in which Abimelech, the son of Jerubbaal, resided and from which he launched his attack on the Shechemites. (Judg. 9:41) It is tentatively identified with El ʽOrmeh, about six miles (9.7 kilometers) SE of Shechem. Some suggest that it is the same as the “Rumah” referred to at 2 Kings 23:36.—See RUMAH.

ARVAD

(Arʹvad) [perhaps, wandering].

In Ezekiel’s prophetic dirge concerning Tyre reference is made to men from Arvad who served as skilled rowers in Tyre’s navy and as valorous warriors in her army. (Ezek. 27:8, 11) Arvad is identified with the small rocky island today known as Ruad, lying about two miles (3.2 kilometers) off the coast of northern Syria (Phoenicia), some 125 miles (201 kilometers) N of Tyre. The inhabitants were descendants of Canaan.—Gen. 10:15, 18.

ARVADITE

(Arʹvad·ite).

A member of the family descended from Ham through Canaan and that evidently inhabited Arvad, an island just off the N Phoenician coast. (Gen. 10:6, 15, 18; 1 Chron. 1:16) The only other mention of them is Ezekiel’s reference to Arvadites as being skilled sailors and valiant soldiers for Tyre.—Ezek. 27:8, 11.

ARZAH

(Arʹzah) [perhaps, earthiness; or, firm; or gracious].

Steward of the household of Elah, king of Israel (952-951 B.C.E.), in whose house in Tirzah the king was “drinking himself drunk” when assassinated by Zimri.—1 Ki. 16:9, 10.

ASA

(Aʹsa) [perhaps, physician; or contraction for Jehovah has healed].

1. The third king of Judah following the division of the nation into two kingdoms. Asa was the son of Abijam and grandson of Rehoboam. Since his father’s three-year rule began in the eighteenth year (980 B.C.E.) of the reign of Jeroboam, king of Israel, and Asa’s began in the twentieth year of Jeroboam, apparently Abijam died before completing his third full year and Asa completed that year as an accession period, followed by his forty-one-year rule (977-936 B.C.E.).—1 Ki. 15:1, 2, 9, 10.

ASA’S ZEAL FOR PURE WORSHIP

The twenty years since the national split had steeped Judah and Benjamin in apostasy. Asa demonstrated a zeal for pure worship “like David his forefather,” and courageously set about to clean the male temple prostitutes and the idols out of the land. He removed his grandmother, Maacah, from her position as a sort of ‘first lady’ of the land because of her making a “horrible idol” to the sacred pole or Asherah, and he pulverized the religious idol.—1 Ki. 15:11-13.

The record at 2 Chronicles 14:2-5 states that Asa “removed the foreign altars and the high places and broke up the sacred pillars and cut down the sacred poles.” However, 2 Chronicles 15:17 and 1 Kings 15:14 say that ‘the high places he did not remove.’ It therefore appears that the high places referred to in the earlier Chronicles account were those of the adopted pagan worship that infected Judah, while the Kings account refers to high places at which the people engaged in worship of Jehovah. Even after the setting up of the tabernacle and the later establishment of the temple, occasional sacrificing was done to Jehovah on high places, which was acceptable to him under special circumstances, as in the cases of Samuel, David and Elijah. (1 Sam. 9:11-19; 1 Chron. 21:26-30; 1 Ki. 18:30-39) Nevertheless, the regular approved place for sacrifice was that authorized by Jehovah. (Num. 33:52; Deut. 12:2-14; Josh. 22:29) Improper modes of high-place worship were also carried on in Jehovah’s name (compare Exodus 32:5), and such may have continued in spite of the removal of the pagan high places, perhaps because the king did not pursue their elimination with the same vigor as the removal of the pagan sites. Or it is possible that Asa did effect a complete removal of all high places but that such cropped up again in due time and were