against invasion. Its cataracts to the S made the land difficult to attack from the direction of Nubia-Ethiopia, while the swampy land around the delta region hindered the entrance of large armies from the Asiatic continent. Some scholars suggest that Assyrian King Sennacherib’s boast of drying up all the Nile canals with his feet signified his confidence of being able to overcome defensive water-filled moats around Egyptian cities and strongholds.—2 Ki. 19:24.

The Nile’s cycles served as the basis for the seasonal calendar of the Egyptians, with three four-month seasons: ʼAkhet or Inundation; Peret, the Coming Forth (evidently of the land as the waters returned to their banks); and Shomu, the Dry season (summer). The period just after the waters were highest was that of the greatest activity; when low water levels prevailed, construction work was programmed to provide a measure of employment.

The symbol of a “great sea monster lying stretched out in the midst of [the] Nile canals,” applied to Pharaoh in the book of Ezekiel, is thought to be drawn from the crocodiles that have inhabited the Nile from ancient times. (Ezek. 29:3-5) Frequent, too, was the hippopotamus, generally identified with the animal designated as “Behemoth” at Job 40:15.

The Egyptians worshiped the Nile as a god of fertility under the name of Hapi. This god was depicted as basically male but with large feminine breasts, the head crowned with aquatic plants and a fisherman’s girdle being around the plump waist. Festivals, with accompanying sacrifices, were held annually in his honor at the beginning of each inundation period. Some scholars suggest that Pharaoh’s going out to the Nile, mentioned at Exodus 7:15, relates to some morning devotional act, though it may have been merely for a morning walk or to examine the height of the river.

NILE CANALS

See CANALS; NILE.

NIMRAH

(Nimʹrah) [leopard, or, pure water].

A town E of the Jordan built or rebuilt by the Gadites; a shortened form of Beth-nimrah.—Num. 32:3-5, 34, 36; see BETH-NIMRAH.

NIMRIM

(Nimʹrim) [wholesome water].

In prophecies directed against Moab, both Isaiah and Jeremiah refer to the “waters of Nimrim.” (Isa. 15:5-9; Jer. 48:34, 35) On the basis of the fertility of the surrounding region, some identify the waters of Nimrim with the Wadi Nimrim, whose waters flow into the Jordan N of the Dead Sea. (See BETH-NIMRAH.) The order in which places are named in the prophecies, however, seems to indicate a location in the S of Moab. Thus many authorities prefer identification with the Wadi en-Numeirah, which flows down into the Dead Sea about eight and a half miles (14 kilometers) from its southern end. The prophecies foretell that these waters will become “sheer” or “mere desolations,” either in a figurative sense due to the desolating of the land or perhaps due to a damming up of their streams by enemy forces.

NIMROD

(Nimʹrod) [possibly, we will rebel, or, let us rebel].

Son of Cush, who was a principal progenitor of the dark-complexioned branch of the human family. (1 Chron. 1:10; compare Jeremiah 13:23.) Nimrod was the founder and king of the first empire to come into existence after the Flood. He distinguished himself as a mighty hunter “before” (in an unfavorable sense; Heb., liph·nehʹ; “against” or “in opposition to”; compare Numbers 16:2; 1 Chronicles 14:8; 2 Chronicles 14:10) or “in front of” Jehovah. (Gen. 10:9, NW, 1953 ed., ftn.) Although in this case some scholars attach a favorable sense to the Hebrew preposition meaning “in front of,” the Jewish Targums, the writings of the historian Josephus and also the context of Genesis chapter 10 suggest that Nimrod was a mighty hunter in defiance of Jehovah.

The beginning of Nimrod’s kingdom included the cities of Babel, Erech, Accad and Calneh, all in the land of Shinar. (Gen. 10:10) Therefore it was likely under his direction that the building of Babel and its tower began. This conclusion is also in agreement with the traditional Jewish view. Wrote Josephus: “[Nimrod] gradually changed the government into tyranny,—seeing no other way of turning men from the fear of God, but to bring them into a constant dependence upon his power. He also said he would be revenged on God, if he should have a mind to drown the world again; for that he would build a tower too high for the waters to be able to reach! . . . Now the multitude were very ready to follow the determination of Nimrod, and to esteem it a piece of cowardice to submit to God; and they built a tower.”—Antiquities of the Jews, Book I, chap. IV, pars. 2, 3.

It appears that after the building of the Tower of Babel Nimrod extended his domain to the territory of Assyria and there built “Nineveh and Rehoboth-Ir and Calah and Resen between Nineveh and Calah: this is the great city.” (Gen. 10:11, 12; compare Micah 5:6.) Since Assyria evidently derived its name from Shem’s son Asshur, Nimrod, as a grandson of Ham, must have invaded Shemite territory. So it would seem that Nimrod made the start in becoming a mighty one or hero, not only as a hunter of animals, but also as a warrior, a man of aggression. (Gen. 10:8) Observes the Cyclopædia by M’Clintock and Strong (Vol. VII, p. 109): “That the mighty hunting was not confined to the chase is apparent from its close connection with the building of eight cities. . . . What Nimrod did in the chase as a hunter was the earlier token of what he achieved as a conqueror. For hunting and heroism were of old specially and naturally associated . . . The Assyrian monuments also picture many feats in hunting, and the word is often employed to denote campaigning. . . . The chase and the battle, which in the same country were connected so closely in aftertimes, may therefore be virtually associated or identified here. The meaning then will be, that Nimrod was the first after the flood to found a kingdom, to unite the fragments of scattered patriarchal rule, and consolidate them under himself as sole head and master; and all this in defiance of Jehovah, for it was the violent intrusion of Hamitic power into a Shemitic territory.”

If Nimrod’s name is correctly defined as “we will rebel” or “let us rebel,” doubtless it came to be applied to him after he began his rebellion.

Concerning the deification of Nimrod, see GODS AND GODDESSES (Babylonian Deities).

NIMSHI

(Nimʹshi) [drawn out, saved].

Father of Jehoshaphat (not the king) and grandfather of Jehu. (1 Ki. 19:16; 2 Ki. 9:2, 14, 20; 2 Chron. 22:7) The name has been found inscribed on a fragment of ancient pottery excavated in Samaria.

NINEVEH

(Ninʹe·veh).

A city of Assyria founded by Nimrod, “a mighty hunter in opposition to Jehovah.” Together with Rehoboth-Ir, Calah and Resen it constituted the “great city.” (Gen. 10:9, 11, 12; Mic. 5:6) Much later it became the capital of the Assyrian Empire. As such, Nineveh was a “city of bloodshed” (Nah. 3:1), for the Assyrians waged many wars of conquest and employed brutal methods in killing captured warriors. Doubtless the military campaigns contributed greatly to the city’s wealth. (Nah. 2:9) The principal deity of Nineveh appears to have been Ishtar, a goddess of love and war.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION

Quyunjiq and Nebi Yunus (“the prophet Jonah”), two mounds located on the E bank of the Tigris River, mark the site of what was once the great city of Nineveh. A modern village, with a cemetery and a mosque, occupies Nebi Yunus. This mound has therefore not been extensively investigated. At Quyunjiq, however, excavations have brought to light much that testifies to Nineveh’s past glory. The findings include thousands of cuneiform tablets from Ashurbanipal’s library and the ruins of the palace of Sennacherib and that of Ashurbanipal. These palaces were impressive structures. Based on his findings, Sir Austen Henry Layard wrote:

“The interior of the Assyrian palace must have been as magnificent as imposing. I have led the reader through its ruins, and he may judge of the impression its halls were calculated to make upon the stranger who in the days of old, entered for the first time the abode of the Assyrian kings. He was ushered in through the portal guarded by the colossal lions or bulls of white alabaster. In the first hall he found himself surrounded by the sculptured records of the empire. Battles, sieges, triumphs, the exploits of the chase, the ceremonies of religion, were portrayed on the walls, sculptured in alabaster, and painted in gorgeous colors. Under each picture were engraved, in characters filled up with bright copper, inscriptions describing the scenes presented. Above the sculptures were painted other events—the king, attended by his eunuchs and warriors, receiving his prisoners, entering into alliances with other monarchs, or performing some sacred duty. These representations were inclosed in colored borders, of elaborate and elegant design. The emblematic tree, winged bulls, and monstrous animals, were conspicuous amongst the ornaments. At the upper end of the hall was the colossal figure of the king in adoration before the supreme deity, or receiving from his eunuch the holy cup. He was attended by warriors bearing his arms, and by the priests or presiding divinities. His robes, and those of his followers, were adorned with groups of figures, animals, and flowers, all painted with brilliant colors.

“The stranger trod upon alabaster slabs, each bearing an inscription, recording the titles, genealogy, and achievements of the great king. Several doorways, formed by gigantic winged lions or bulls, or by the figures of guardian deities, led into other apartments, which again opened into more distant halls. In each were new sculptures. On the walls of some were processions of colossal figures—armed men and eunuchs following the king, warriors laden with spoil, leading prisoners, or bearing presents and offerings to the gods. On the walls of others were portrayed the winged priests, or presiding divinities, standing before the sacred trees.

“The ceilings above him were divided into square compartments, painted with flowers, or with the figures of animals. Some were inlaid with ivory, each compartment being surrounded by elegant borders and mouldings. The beams, as well as the sides of the chambers, may have been gilded, or even plated, with gold and silver; and the rarest woods, in which the cedar was conspicuous, were used for the woodwork. Square openings in the ceilings of the chambers admitted the light of day.”—Nineveh and Its Remains, Part II, pp. 207-209.

IN THE TIME OF JONAH

Jehovah’s prophet Jonah, in the ninth century B.C.E., declared impending doom for Nineveh because of the wickedness of its inhabitants. However, since the people, including the king, repented, Jehovah spared the city. (Jonah 1:1, 2; 3:2, 5-10) At that time Nineveh was a great city, “with a walking distance of three days.” (Jonah 3:3) Its population numbered more than 120,000 men. (Jonah 4:11) This Biblical description is not controverted by archaeological evidence indicating that Nineveh had a circumference of about eight miles (13 kilometers). Observes André Parrot, Curator-in-Chief of the French National Museums:

“Just as today, that part of London which lies within its ancient boundary is very different from what is called ‘greater London’—a term which includes the suburbs and denotes a much larger area—so it may be that people who lived far away from Assyria understood by the word ‘Nineveh’ what is now known as ‘the Assyrian triangle’ . . . , which stretches from Khorsabad in the north to Nimrud in the south, and, with an almost unbroken string of settlements, covers a distance of some twenty-six miles. . . .

“Felix Jones estimated that the population of Nineveh might have numbered 174,000 persons, and quite recently, in his excavations at Nimrud, M. E. L. Mallowan discovered a stele of Ashurnazirpal on which it is recorded that he invited to a banquet the fabulous number of 69,574 guests. Mallowan considers that, allowing for foreigners, the population of Kalakh (Nimrud) might have been 65,000. But Nineveh is twice the area of Nimrud, and thus it may be reckoned that the figure in Jonah 4.11 is indirectly confirmed.”—Nineveh and the Old Testament, pp. 85, 86; see JONAH No. 1; JONAH, BOOK OF.

ITS DESTRUCTION FULFILLS PROPHECY

Although repenting at the preaching of Jonah (Matt. 12:41; Luke 11:30, 32), the Ninevites relapsed and again took to their wicked ways. It was some years after Assyrian King Sennacherib had been murdered at Nineveh in the house of his god Nisroch (2 Ki. 19:36, 37; Isa. 37:37, 38) that Nahum (1:1; 2:8–3:19) and Zephaniah (2:13-15) foretold the destruction of that wicked city. Their prophecies were fulfilled when the combined forces of Nabopolassar the king of Babylon and of Cyaxares the Mede besieged and captured Nineveh. The city was evidently subjected to burning, for many Assyrian reliefs show damage or stain from fire and accompanying smoke. With reference to Nineveh, the Babylonian Chronicles report: “The great spoil of the city and temple they carried off and [turned] the city into a ruin-mound.” To this day Nineveh is a desolate waste and, in the spring, flocks graze near or atop the mound of Quyunjiq.

DATE OF NINEVEH’S FALL

Though effaced from the extant cuneiform tablet that relates the fail of Nineveh, the date for this event, the fourteenth year of Nabopolassar, can be supplied from the context. It is also possible to place the destruction of Nineveh in the framework of Bible chronology. According to the Babylonian Chronicles, the Egyptians were defeated at Carchemish in the twenty-first year of Nabopolassar’s reign. The Bible shows this to have taken place in the fourth year of Jehoiakim’s reign or in 625 B.C.E. (Jer. 46:2) Therefore, the capture of Nineveh (about seven years earlier) in the fourteenth year of Nabopolassar’s reign would fall in the year 632 B.C.E.—See ASSYRIA.

NISAN

(Niʹsan).

The postexilic name of the first Jewish lunar month of the sacred calendar, corresponding to part of March and part of April. (Neh. 2:1; Esther 3:7) This month, first called “Abib,” was originally considered the seventh month and is evidently the month referred to at Genesis 8:4. At the time of the exodus from Egypt, Jehovah assigned this month to be the “first of the months of the year.” (Ex. 12:2; 13:4; Num. 33:3) From then on, the distinction existed of a sacred calendar instituted by Jehovah as compared to the previous secular calendar. The name “Nisan” is believed to mean “start” or “beginning.”—See CALENDAR; ABIB.

The weather was often quite cool during this spring month and, in Jerusalem, fires were lit at night to provide warmth. (John 18:18) Snow has even fallen in Jerusalem as late as April 6, as it did in 1949. Nisan came at the close of the rainy season, and the latter or spring rains were counted on to bring the grain to fullness prior to the harvest. (Deut. 11:14; Hos. 6:3; Jer. 5:24) At this time of the year the Jordan River was normally at flood stage. (Josh. 3:15; 1 Chron. 12:15) The barley harvest began along the coastal plains, and down in the subtropical Jordan Valley the wheat was reaching maturity. (Ruth 1:22; 2:23) Harvested flax on Rahab’s rooftop in Jericho provided a place for the Israelite spies to hide about this time.—Josh. 2:6; 4:19.