and by sea. Babylon, it is said, had a fleet of three thousand galleys that plied not only the city’s canal system but also the great Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. This means that her fleet had access to the Persian Gulf and the seas far beyond.

BABYLON’S RELIGION

Babylon was a most religious place; remains of no less than fifty-three temples have been discovered. The god of the imperial city was Marduk. His temple was E-sagila, meaning “Lofty House”, its tower E-teme-nanki, meaning “House of the Foundation of Heaven and Earth.” Marduk is called Merodach in the Bible, and various authorities identify Nimrod with the god Marduk; it was ancient custom for a city to deify its founder. Triads of deities were also prominent in the Babylonian religion. One of these, made up of two gods and a goddess, was Sin (the moon god), Shamash (the sun god) and Ishtar; these were said to be the rulers of the Zodiac. And still another triad was composed of the devils Labartu, Labasu and Akhkhazu. Idolatry was everywhere in evidence. Babylon was indeed “a land of graven images,” filthy “dungy idols.” (Jer. 50:1, 2, 38) The Babylonians believed in the immortality of the human soul. Nergal was their god of the underworld, the “land of no return,” and his wife Eresh-kigal its sovereign lady.

The Babylonians developed the pseudoscience or astrology in an effort to discover man’s future in the stars. (See ASTROLOGERS.) Magic, sorcery and astrology played a prominent Part in their religion. (Isa 47:12, 13; Dan. 2:27; 4:7) Many heavenly bodies, for example, planets, were named after Babylonian gods. In the fourth century C.E., Epiphanius opined that it was ‘Nimrod who established the sciences of magic and astronomy.’ Divination continued to be a basic component of Babylonian religion in the days of Nebuchadnezzar, who used it to reach decisions.—Ezek. 21:20-22.

ISRAEL’S AGE-OLD ENEMY

The Bible makes many references to Babylon, beginning with the Genesis account of the original city of Babel. (Gen. 10:10; 11:1-9) Included in the spoil taken by Achan from Jericho was “an official garment from Shinar.” (Josh. 7:21) After the fall of the northern kingdom of Israel in 740 B.C.E., people from Babylon were brought in to replace the captive Israelites. (2 Ki. 17:24, 30) Hezekiah made the mistake of showing messengers from Babylon the treasures of his house; these same treasures as well as some of Hezekiah’s “sons” were later taken to Babylon. (2 Ki. 20:12-18; 24:12; 25:6, 7) King Manasseh (716-661 B.C.E.) was also taken captive to Babylon, but because he humbled himself Jehovah restored him to his throne. (2 Chron. 33:11) Under Nebuchadnezzar Babylon was a “golden cup” in the hand of Jehovah to pour out indignation against unfaithful Judah and Jerusalem. King Nebuchadnezzar took the precious utensils of Jehovah’s house to Babylon, along with thousands of captives.—2 Ki. 24:1–25:30; 2 Chron. 36:6-20; Jer. 25:17; 51:7.

In the book of Daniel are recounted the experiences of Daniel and his three companions in Babylonish captivity, including the interpreting of the king’s dreams and the receiving of visions. The books of Ezra and Nehemiah tell how nearly 50,000 came up out of captivity with Zerubbabel and Jeshua in 537 B.C.E., and about another 1,800 with Ezra in 468. The temple utensils were restored to Jerusalem. (Ezra 2:64-67; 8:1-36; Neh. 7:6, 66, 67) In 455, Persian King Artaxerxes I, also called “the king of Babylon,” commissioned Nehemiah to go to Jerusalem as governor and rebuild its walls. (Neh. 2:7, 8) Mordecai was a descendant of a Benjamite who was taken captive to Babylon.—Esther 2:5, 6.

The Christian Greek Scriptures tell how Jeconiah (Jehoiachin), taken prisoner to Babylon, was a link in the lineage to Jesus. (Matt. 1:11, 12, 17) The apostle Peter’s first canonical letter was written from Babylon. (1 Pet. 5:13) That “Babylon” was the city on the Euphrates, and not Rome as claimed by some.—See PETER, LETTERS OF.

“Babylon the Great” is included in the symbolisms of the book of Revelation. There she is described as “the mother of the harlots and of the disgusting things of the earth” (17:5) and as making “all the nations drink of the passion-arousing wine of her fornication.” (14:8) She is given the “cup of the wine of the anger” of God’s wrath (16:19); “in one hour” her judgment comes (18:10); the ten horns of the scarlet-colored wild beast unseat her as a rider on its back, make her naked, eat her fleshy parts and completely burn her with fire. (17:16) She is hurled down with a swift pitch, like a great millstone. (18:21) Thus the desolation of “Babylon the Great” becomes as complete as that of the iniquitous city on the banks of the Euphrates River.—See BABYLON THE GREAT.

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BABYLONIA

(Bab·y·loʹni·a).

That ancient land in the lower Mesopotamian valley through which the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers flow, and which corresponds to the southeastern part of modern Iraq. It extends about 30 miles (48.3 kilometers) W of the Euphrates, joining the Arabian Desert. East of the Tigris it is bounded by the Persian hills; on the SE by the Persian Gulf. Its northern boundary is a natural one marked by a noticeable rise in elevation near Baghdad. Here in the N the two rivers approach to within twenty-five miles (40.2 kilometers) of each other. The plain extends about 250 miles (402 kilometers) to the S, and is 100 miles (160.9 kilometers) across at its widest point. This area of about 8,000 square miles (20,720 sq. kilometers) is similar in size to Wales or the state of New Jersey. So flat is this country that from the northern limits to the Gulf there is a fall of only 125 feet (38 meters) in the level of the rivers.

Sometimes historians subdivide Babylonia, calling the northern part Akkad (Accad) and the southern part Sumer or Chaldea. Originally this territory was designated in the Scriptures as “the land of Shinar.” (Gen. 10:10; 11:2; see SHINAR.) Later, when dominating rulers made Babylon their capital, it was known as Babylonia. Because Chaldean dynasties sometimes held sway it was also called “the land of the Chaldeans.” (Jer. 24:5; 25:12; Ezek. 12:13) Some of the ancient cities in Babylonia were Adab, Akkad, Babylon, Borsippa, Erech, Kish, Lagash, Nippur and Ur.

Composed of alluvial soil deposits from the flooding of the two great rivers, the land as a whole was quite fertile. An extensive canal system for both irrigation and drainage made it possible to produce bumper crops of barley, corn, dates, figs and pomegranates. Herodotus reported that two- and three-hundredfold yields of wheat from semiannual harvests were reaped in the long growing season. The climate today is very hot; rainfall is low and so is the humidity except along the seacoast. As a result the land has no great forests. Native building material since the days of Nimrod consisted of clay bricks mortared together with bitumen, found upstream near the city of Hit.

Archaeological excavation here in the cradle of civilization has brought to light many interesting facts about people of the past and their way of life. Decipherment of thousands of clay tablets and inscriptions reveals that people long ago made contracts, signed leases and carried on trade with other nations. They had a system of weights and measures and a knowledge of the science of mathematics. Astronomy, although exploited by the demon-worshiping astrologers, was, nevertheless, able to keep track of time and movement of the heavenly bodies, and thereby useful calendars were developed.

Out of these excavations have also come the names of dynasties and rulers, together with meager accounts of their exploits and conquests in ancient Babylonia. For the most part this archaeological information is only fragmentary, and though scholars have spent much time and effort piecing it all together, the result is only a quilted pattern of secular history, very ragged in its details. Their chronology is largely a matter of conjecture and guesswork requiring periodic revision. However, some of the events of the eighth century B.C.E., when Assyria dominated Babylonia, are illuminated by Biblical testimony.

About the first half of the eighth century B.C.E., an Assyrian king by the name of Tiglath-pileser III (Pul) ruled Babylonia. (2 Ki. 15:29; 16:7; 1 Chron. 5:26) Later, during Sargon II’s reign, a Chaldean called Merodach-baladan proclaimed himself king of Babylon with the backing of Elam and some Aramaeans, but after some years he was ousted by Sargon. Sennacherib, in succeeding Sargon II, faced another Babylonian revolt led by Merodach-baladan. After Sennacherib’s unsuccessful attempt to capture Jerusalem in 732 B.C.E., Merodach-baladan sent envoys to Hezekiah of Judah possibly to seek support against Assyria. (Isa. 39:1, 2; 2 Ki 20:12-18) Some years later Sennacherib drove out Merodach-baladan and crowned himself ruler of Babylon, a position he held until death. His son, Esar-haddon, rebuilt Babylon; he, in turn, was succeeded by Ashurbanipal, who governed Babylonia through a viceroy. After the death of Ashurbanipal the Babylonians rallied around Nabopolassar and bestowed the kingship on him. This, then, was the beginning of the Neo-Babylonian dynasty that was to continue until Belshazzar.

Evidently in 632 B.C.E. Assyria was subdued by this new Chaldean dynasty, with the assistance of Median and Scythian allies. In 625, Nabopolassar’s son defeated Pharaoh Necho of Egypt at the battle of Carchemish, and later that year he assumed the helm of government as Nebuchadnezzar II. (Jer. 46:1, 2) In 620 he compelled Jehoiakim to pay tribute, but after two years Jehoiakim revolted. In 618, or during Jehoiakim’s third year as tributary ruler, Nebuchadnezzar came against Jerusalem. (2 Ki. 24:1; 2 Chron. 36:6) However, before he could be taken by the Babylonians, Jehoiakim died. Jehoiachin, having succeeded his father, quickly surrendered and was taken captive along with other nobility to Babylon in 617. (2 Ki. 24:12) Zedekiah was next appointed to the throne of Judah, but he too rebelled; and in 609 the Babylonians again laid siege to Jerusalem and finally breached its walls in 607 B.C.E.—2 Ki. 25:1-10; Jer. 52:3-12.

At least one cuneiform tablet has been found referring to a campaign against Egypt in Nebuchadnezzar’s thirty-seventh year (588/587 B.C.E.). This may be the occasion when mighty Egypt was brought under Babylonian control, as foretold by the prophet Ezekiel evidently in the year 591 B.C.E. (Ezek. 29:17-19) Finally, after a forty-three-year reign, which included both conquest of many nations and a grand building program in Babylonia itself, Nebuchadnezzar II died and was succeeded by his son, Evil-merodach (Amel-Marduk), in 581. This new ruler showed kindness to captive King Jehoiachin. (2 Ki. 25:27-30) The following period of Babylonian history is quite obscure. Archaeologists have been able to find only one strictly historical tablet for the reign of Neriglissar, evidently the successor of Evil-merodach. Historians are reliant on Ptolemy’s canon and quotations that Josephus claims to have made from Berossus, a Babylonian priest, for the reigns of these kings and that of Labashi-Marduk, the apparent successor of Neriglissar. On this basis, and that of some contract tablets, they assign two years for the reign of Evil-merodach, four for Neriglissar, and nine months for Labashi-Marduk. Reasons for doubting that these sources present the whole picture are considered under the heading CHRONOLOGY.

More complete historical information is available for Nabonidus and his son Belshazzar, who were evidently ruling as coregents at the time of Babylon’s fall. See the articles under their respective names for fuller details.

By now the Medes and Persians under command of Cyrus the Great were on the march to take over control of Babylonia and become the fourth world power. During the night of October 5/6, 539 B.C.E. (Gregorian calendar), Babylon was seized and Belshazzar slain. Within two years Cyrus issued his famous decree permitting nearly 50,000 captives to return to Jerusalem. Some two hundred years later, Persian domination of Babylonia came to an end when Alexander the Great captured Babylon in 331. By the middle of the second century B.C.E. the Parthians under their king Mithradates I, were in control of Babylonia. Since Jewish communities had been flourishing in this land, Peter the apostle to the Jews went to Babylon, and it was from there that he wrote at least one of his inspired letters. (Gal. 2:7-9; 1 Pet. 5:13) Jewish leaders in these Eastern communities also developed the Babylonian Targum, otherwise known as the Targum of Onkelos, as well as producing a number of manuscripts of the Hebrew Scriptures. One of the most important of the Eastern or Babylonian line of texts is catalogued as the Codex Babylonicus Petropolitanus of 916 C.E., now in Leningrad, U.S.S.R. In 226 C.E. the Parthian rule of Babyionia was replaced by the Sassanian (Persian) dynasty, and around 640 C.E., Moslem Arabs took over control of Babylonia.—See BABYLON

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