and Alexander “over to Satan that they [evidently the observers of the action in the congregation] may be taught by discipline not to blaspheme.” (1 Tim. 1:20; compare 2 Timothy 2:16-18.) James showed that the rich, as a class, were prone to “blaspheme the fine name” by which the disciples were called. (Jas. 2:6, 7; compare John 17:6; Acts 15:14.) In the “last days” blasphemers would abound (2 Tim. 3:1, 2), as the book of Revelation also foretells by statement and by symbol.—Rev. 13:1-6; 16:9-11, 21; 17:3.

TRADITIONAL VIEWS OF BLASPHEMY

Evidently toward the start of the Common Era, rabbinical teaching fostered the erroneous view that Leviticus 24:10-23 prohibited as blasphemous the very pronunciation of the name Jehovah. Talmudic tradition also prescribed that when the religious judges heard testimony setting forth blasphemous words supposedly used by the accused, they were to rend their garments, following the example at 2 Kings 18:37; 19:1-4. (The Jewish Encyclopedia [1903], Vol. III, p. 237; compare Matthew 26:65.) Among professed Christians of the early centuries, apostates and also those who denied the faith under persecution were considered as blasphemers. In the early part of the second century C.E., Governor Pliny’s letter to Emperor Trajan concerning the prosecution of Christians relates that certain alleged Christians were made to offer up pagan sacrifices and even reviled the name of Christ; whereas Pliny observes, “there is no forcing, it is said, those who are really Christians into any of these compliances.” (Harvard Classics, Vol. 9, pp. 426, 427) Somewhat later, Polycarp, known as the bishop of Smyrna, when ordered by a consul to renounce Christ is said to have replied: “These eighty-six years I have served him, and he never did me any harm: how, then, can I blaspheme my King and my Saviour?”

BLASTUS

(Blasʹtus) [sprout, shoot].

The man in charge of the bedchamber of King Herod Agrippa I. Because of his position of influence, the people of Tyre and Sidon first won him over, perhaps by bribery, when they sued for peace with Herod.—Acts 12:20.

BLEMISH

A physical or moral defect, imperfection; unsoundness; “anything bad.” (Deut. 17:1) In contrast with Jehovah, who is “perfect in his activity [“without blemish (spotless) are his works,” Sy],” of Israel God said: “They have acted ruinously on their own part; they are not his children, the defect is their own.”—Deut. 32:4, 5.

A Levitical priest ministering before the God of perfection, therefore, had to be free from such physical blemishes as blindness, lameness, a slit nose, abnormalities such as an elongated hand, a hunched back, fractured hand, consumptive thinness, eye or skin diseases, a broken hand or foot, and broken or crushed testicles. (Lev. 21:18-20) Free from such defects, Israel’s high priest well represented the great High Priest Jesus Christ, who is “guileless, undefiled.”—Heb. 7:26.

Soundness, freedom from blemish, was required of the sacrificial animals under the Mosaic law. (Ex. 12:5; Lev. 4:3, 28; Deut. 15:21) The same was also true of the sacrifices in connection with the pictorial temple envisioned by Ezekiel. (Ezek. 43:22, 23) In like manner, Christ, “an unblemished and spotless lamb,” “offered himself without blemish to God.”—1 Pet. 1:19; Heb. 9:14.

Among persons whose physical appearance is described as having “no defect” were Absalom, the Shulammite girl, and certain sons of Israel in Babylon. (2 Sam. 14:25; Song of Sol. 4:7; Dan. 1:4) Everyone under the Law was encouraged to watch out for and protect one another, lest they become blemished in any way. “In case a man should cause a defect in his associate, then just as he has done, so it should be done to him. Fracture for fracture, eye for eye, tooth for tooth; the same sort of defect he may cause in the man, that is what should be caused in him.” (Lev. 24:19, 20) The apostle expressed concern over keeping the Christian congregation free from blemishes in a spiritual sense.—Eph. 1:4; 5:27; Col. 1:22; see also Jude 24.

BLESSING

A making or pronouncing holy; a request of God for the bestowal of divine favor; bestowing goodness; favor; extolling as holy; glorifying; speaking well of; protecting or guarding from evil; bringing happiness.

The various forms of the Hebrew words generally translated “bless” or “blessing” occur about 400 times in the Scriptures. The verb ba·rakhʹ, usually rendered “bless,” is sometimes translated “kneel” or “kneel down.” (Gen. 24:11; 2 Chron. 6:13; Ps. 95:6) In a few passages the word is rendered “salute” (AV), “wish . . . well” (NW) (1 Sam. 25:14); “congratulate” (NW) (1 Chron. 18:10); “greet” (NW) (2 Ki. 4:29). The noun form of the Hebrew word is found in the name of the Low Plain of Beracah (“Blessing”), for it was here that Jehoshaphat and his people blessed Jehovah.—2 Chron. 20:26.

The Jewish Sopherim or Scripture copyists emended several passages to read “bless” instead of “curse” (1 Ki. 21:10, 13; Job 1:5, 11; 2:5, 9), holding the view that it was blasphemous even to note anyone’s cursing God.

The Greek verb eu·lo·geʹo literally means “to speak well of,” a combination of eu, meaning “well,” and loʹgos, “word.” It occurs in the verb, noun and adjective forms more than sixty-five times in the Christian Greek Scriptures. In only one place (Rom. 16:18) is the term used in an unfavorable sense, as “complimentary speech” to seduce one’s heart. Another Greek word, ma·kaʹri·os, translated “blessed” in some versions, conveys the thought of happiness, and is so rendered in several translations.—Matt. 5:3-11; compare AV; AT; Ro; ED; NW; Yg.

The Scriptures use “bless” and “blessing” in at least four principal aspects: (1) God to man, Jehovah’s blessing bestowed upon humankind in general and upon individuals; (2) man to God, humans blessing God; also blessing Christ; (3) men to other men, men blessing other men and (4) a person being a blessing to others.

BLESSINGS FROM JEHOVAH

“The blessing of Jehovah—that is what makes rich, and he adds no pain with it.” (Prov. 10:22) Jehovah blesses those whom he approves by protecting, prospering, guiding, giving success and supplying their needs, with a beneficial outcome for them.

Jehovah’s goodwill toward his earthly creations was expressed at the time he brought them forth. To the animal kinds created on the fifth day, God’s blessing was a pronouncement of his purpose regarding them. (Gen. 1:22) When God blessed Adam and Eve at the end of the sixth day, this was a bestowal of goodness that would enable them, if obedient, to remain in his favor, for he provided all their spiritual and material needs.—Gen. 1:28; 2:9; 5:2.

After Jehovah had completed his earthly creative work on the six creative days, nothing was lacking for the welfare of his creation. (Gen. 1:31) Then God rested or desisted from this work, blessing the seventh day, declaring it sacred, holy. Happiness with endless blessing was the prospect set before human creation.—Gen. 2:3; Ex. 20:11.

When Noah and his family came out of the ark, Jehovah looked with favor on them, blessing them and giving them a statement of his will for them. By doing Jehovah’s will they would prosper with his favor and protection.—Gen. 9:1.

Of vital importance to all mankind is the blessing concerning Abraham and his Seed. (Gen. 12:3; 18:18; 22:18) Jehovah blessed Abraham and Sarah by miraculously renewing their reproductive powers, enabling them to have a son in their old age. (Gen. 17:16; 21:2) He prospered Abraham and used him in a pictorial way to foreshadow greater things. (Gal. 4:21-26) Therefore, God’s blessing in providing a seed for Abraham has higher significance in the promise that the people of all nations will be blessed by means of the One Isaac foreshadowed, Jesus Christ.—Gal. 3:8, 14; Acts 3:25, 26; Heb. 6:13-20.

The blessing of Jehovah on a person or a people is contingent upon obedience to him. (Ex. 23:25) The sharp contrasts drawn at Deuteronomy, chapters 27 and 28, clearly show that Jehovah’s curse, resulting in severe punishment, is upon the disobedient ones, whereas his blessing rests upon the obedient ones, producing spiritual prosperity and filling their material needs, making itself evident in their homes, their land, their offspring, their animals, their food supply, their traveling, their every deed. “Blessings are for the head of the righteous one.” (Prov. 10:6, 7) When Jehovah’s people are faithfully obedient, He is pleased to ‘open the floodgates of the heavens and actually empty out a blessing until there is no more want.’—Mal. 3:10.

MAN BLESSING JEHOVAH

Man blesses Jehovah primarily by praising him. Expressions of gratitude, acknowledging him as the One from whom all blessings flow, speaking well of him on every occasion, and performing acts of adoration and service also bless Jehovah. Preaching the good news is a way of blessing Jehovah, since it praises his name and purposes.—Heb. 13:15.

Men have blessed Jehovah for delivering his people from oppression (Ex. 18:9, 10); for providing their needs (Deut. 8:10); for his dignity, mightiness, rulership and beauty as Head over all (1 Chron. 29:10-12, 20); for moving his people to support his worship (2 Chron. 31:8); in prayer of confession because of his covenant-keeping and mercy (Neh. 9:5, 31, 32); for giving wisdom and might (Dan. 2:19-23); for protecting his servants and demonstrating his sovereignty. (Dan. 3:28; 4:34) The book of Psalms constantly blesses Jehovah and calls for all in heaven and earth to praise his name for his many magnificent qualities.—Ps. 16:7; 103:1, 20-22; 145:2, 10; compare Acts 2:8-11; Revelation 7:11, 12; 14:6, 7.

Another reason for man’s blessing Jehovah is the gift of his Son Jesus Christ. (John 3:16) Jesus himself is also to be blessed by all. Elizabeth blessed Jesus’ mother Mary and the yet unborn fruit of her womb. (Luke 1:42) Jesus’ heavenly origin, his coming in Jehovah’s name as his Son, his ministry, his sacrifice, his priesthood, his kingship, his undeserved kindness, all justly warrant his being hailed as a blessed one. (John 12:13; 2 Cor. 8:9; Heb. 1:2; 7:24-26) In fulfillment of Psalm 118:26, the crowd welcomed him as the blessed one of Jehovah on his triumphal entry into Jerusalem. (Matt. 21:9) Angelic creatures and earthlings all are to bless him.—Rev. 5:12, 13.

MAN BLESSING MAN

In contrast to Jehovah, who always fulfills the blessing He speaks, many times when a man pronounces a blessing on another person he may not have the ability to fulfill it. In the Bible, man’s pronouncement of a blessing often amounts to an appeal for divine blessing, even though not necessarily expressed in a prayer. So while man may be the intended object of such a blessing, the source is admittedly God himself. Again, man’s blessing of other men may often constitute an expression of gratitude, an appreciative acknowledgment of fine qualities or of a job well done.

It is with reference to being able to bless with effectiveness, to have the authority from God to bless, or the power to carry out the blessing, that Paul, in arguing the superiority of Melchizedek’s priesthood over that of Levi, expresses the principle: “Now without any dispute, the less is blessed by the greater.” (Heb. 7:7) Melchizedek was a priest of God and a king and could speak for God authoritatively and prophetically in giving Abraham a blessing.—Gen. 14:18-20; Heb. 7:1-4.

When individuals have done something that contributes to Jehovah’s praise, others have seen fit to pronounce a blessing on them. Moses blessed Bezalel and the other workers at their completion of the tabernacle construction. (Ex. 39:43) The priests and Levites, as spiritual leaders of Israel, were appointed to bless the people on numerous occasions. (Num. 6:23-27; Lev. 9:22, 23; Deut. 10:8; 21:5; 1 Chron. 23:13; 2 Chron. 30:27) High Priest Eli blessed Samuel’s parents for the gift of their child to temple service. (1 Sam. 2:20, 21) David blessed the people after he had brought the Ark to Jerusalem. (2 Sam. 6:18; 1 Chron. 16:2) Solomon wisely followed the same course when he dedicated the temple to Jehovah. (1 Ki. 8:14, 55) Aged Simeon blessed Jesus’ parents. (Luke 2:34) Jesus blessed the children who came to him.—Mark 10:16.

OCCASIONS FOR EXPRESSING BLESSING

In prayer, one praises and thanks God, blessing him and, in turn, speaks on behalf of those united in faith and those seeking God, blessing them. “Saying a blessing” or “asking a blessing,” blessing that which is to be partaken of, before eating a meal is usually done in prayer. In such prayer thanks and praise are given to Jehovah for his spiritual and material provisions, asking that Jehovah will direct the nourishment to be used for the benefit of those partaking and to strengthen them to serve him. (1 Sam. 9:13; Matt. 14:19; Luke 9:16) In blessing the bread and the wine at the Lords’ evening meal praise and thanks are given to God with the request that all partaking may benefit spiritually from the things that these symbolize and may remain in unity and integrity as the body of Christ.—Matt. 26:26; 1 Cor. 10:16.

In patriarchal society a father often blessed his sons shortly before his death. This was a matter of great importance, and was highly valued. Thus Isaac blessed Jacob, thinking he was the firstborn Esau. Isaac pronounced favor and prosperity for Jacob ahead of his brother Esau, undoubtedly petitioning Jehovah to carry out the blessing, as Isaac himself was blind and old. (Gen. 27:1-4, 23-29; 28:1, 6; Heb. 11:20; 12:16, 17) Later Isaac knowingly confirmed and enlarged on the blessing. (Gen. 28:1-4) Before dying, Jacob blessed first Joseph’s two sons, then his own. (Gen. 48:9, 20; 49:1-28; Heb. 11:21) Similarly, Moses, before his death, blessed the whole nation of Israel. (Deut. 33:1) In all these cases the results prove that they spoke prophetically. In some instances, when pronouncing such blessings, the blesser’s hand was placed upon the head of the blessed one.—Gen. 48:13, 14.

As a greeting, one’s offering a blessing was a wish for the other’s welfare. Jacob, on being brought in before Pharaoh, blessed him. (Gen. 47:7; see also 1 Samuel 13:10; 25:14; 1 Kings 1:47; 2 Kings 10:15.) Blessings might be bestowed on departing. Rebekah, for example, was blessed by her family when leaving Mesopotamia to go marry Isaac.—Gen. 24:60; see also Genesis 28:1; 2 Samuel 19:39; 1 Kings 8:66.

Giving a gift was also associated with blessings. (Gen. 33:11; Josh. 14:13; 15:18, 19) Understandably the gift itself might come to be called the blessing, a “gift blessing.” Gifts might be offered as expressions of well-wishing toward a loved one, or in an endeavor to find favor, or as an expression of gratitude.—1 Sam. 25:27; 30:26.

Blessings can be bestowed in the form of compliments. Boaz blessed Ruth for her loving-kindness. (Ruth 3:10) Men volunteering to perform a service in behalf of Jehovah’s worship were blessed by observers. (Neh. 11:2) Parents are entitled to blessing from their children.—Prov. 30:11.

A blessing can consist of favorable or upbuilding speech. Jesus admonished “to bless those cursing you.” (Luke 6:28) “Keep on blessing those who persecute, be blessing and do not be cursing.” (Rom. 12:14) This does not mean to praise opposers, but good conduct toward such ones, coupled with kind, considerate, truthful speech that would be beneficial to them if heeded, may result in winning their goodwill. (1 Cor. 4:12; 1 Pet. 3:9) The manner of speaking must also be considered. (Prov. 27:14) To turn someone away from wicked deeds is indeed a blessing, working for that person’s best interests and to Jehovah’s praise.—Acts 3:26.

BEING A BLESSING TO OTHERS

One can be a blessing to his fellowman by following a course of obedience to God. The association of such ones whom Jehovah blesses brings blessings to others. Laban was blessed because Jacob kept his flocks. (Gen. 30:27, 30) Potiphar’s household and field prospered due to Joseph’s oversight. (Gen. 39:5) The presence of ten righteous citizens could have caused God to spare Sodom. (Gen. 18:32) The dedicated servant of God can bring God’s favorable consideration to an unbelieving mate and their young children. (1 Cor. 7:14) Jesus said that, in the world’s time of greatest tribulation, “on account of the chosen ones those days will be cut short,” otherwise “no flesh would be saved.” (Matt. 24:21, 22; compare Isaiah 65:8.) To imitate the example of God’s blessed ones brings even greater blessings. (Gal. 3:9; Heb. 13:7; 1 Cor. 11:1; 2 Thess. 3:7) Doing good to Christ’s brothers, God’s “chosen ones,” brings Jehovah’s blessings to the “sheep,” with the reward of everlasting life.—Matt. 25:34, 40, 46.

BLINDNESS

Blindness appears to have been quite a common affliction in the ancient Near East. Besides a sizable number of references to it in the Bible, secular writings, such as the Ebers Papyrus from Egypt, frequently refer to the condition, describing several forms of the disease and its symptoms, prescribing eyewashes and naming some of the surgical instruments used.

The standard of cleanliness set by the Law must have made eye diseases less prevalent among the Israelites than among the Egyptian and Arabian peoples; and we cannot assume that the situation in these lands now is an accurate picture of the condition of Israel in Bible times. Today a large percentage of people in the Near East are afflicted with some form of eye trouble and many are blind. Among some of these peoples it is considered “bad luck” to disturb the flies that infest the dried secretion on the eyes, even those of infants. This spreads the most highly infectious eye diseases. The breaking of God’s law concerning sexual morality spreads syphilis and gonorrhea, which diseases can cause blindness and are the source of much congenital blindness, the conjunctiva or mucous membrane of the eyes receiving the infection from the mother at the time of birth.

Israel’s law of retaliation requiring soul for soul, eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot, not only emphasized the sanctity of life, but also impressed strongly upon the Israelites the need for extraordinary care to avoid doing injury to another and also to be sure that any testimony they presented in court was true and accurate, since the one bearing false testimony would suffer the very punishment he would have brought on an innocent person. (Ex. 21:23, 24; Deut. 19:18-21; Lev. 24:19, 20) If a master caused his slave to lose an eye, the master did not have one of his own eyes put out, but the slave was set free. (Ex. 21:26) While slaves could be required to work and could be beaten if rebellious, yet the master was thereby kept conscious of the need to refrain from being unduly severe.

It was a common practice of the Assyrians and Babylonians to put out the eyes of those whom they defeated in warfare. Blindness was induced by passing a red-hot copper plate before the eyes or by piercing the eyes with spears or hot irons. It may be that at times a dagger or sword was used. Samson was blinded by the Philistines, and King Zedekiah by Nebuchadnezzar. (Judg. 16:21; 2 Ki. 25:7; Jer. 39:7) Nahash, the king of the Ammonites, said that he would accept the surrender of the city of Jabesh in Gilead “on the condition of boring out every right eye of yours, and I must put it as a reproach upon all Israel.” (1 Sam. 11:2) For certain crimes Persian law punished the guilty by blinding.

The Bible records several cases of blindness from senility or old age, where the eyes were not diseased, but “dim” or “set.” Because of it Isaac was led to bestow the blessing on the deserving one, Jacob. High Priest Eli began to lose his vision sometime before his death at the age of ninety-eight years. Jeroboam’s wife schemed to take advantage of the aged prophet Ahijah’s blindness, but Jehovah thwarted the plot. (Gen. 27:1; 1 Sam. 3:2; 4:14-18; 1 Ki. 14:4, 5) However, at the advanced age of 120 years it is reported of Moses that “his eye had not grown dim.”—Deut. 34:7.

Jehovah, who made the eye, can also bring about blindness. (Ex. 4:11) He warned the nation of Israel that if they rejected his statutes and violated his covenant he would bring upon them burning fever, causing the eyes to fail. (Lev. 26:15, 16; Deut. 28:28) He inflicted temporary blindness in the cases of the wicked men of Sodom and the sorcerer Elymas. (Gen. 19:11; Acts 13:11) Saul of Tarsus was blinded by the brilliance of the light when Jesus appeared to him “as if to one born prematurely.” He regained sight when Ananias laid his hands on him and “there fell from his eyes what looked like scales.” (1 Cor. 15:8; Acts 9:3, 8, 9, 12, 17, 18) In a prophetic utterance by the prophet Zechariah, Jehovah points out that the horses of those who come against Jerusalem will be stricken with loss of sight (Zech. 12:4), and that in the day belonging to Jehovah all the peoples that will actually do military service against Jerusalem will experience a scourge in which their very eyes will “rot away in their sockets.”—Zech. 14:1, 12.

The blindness that was brought on the military force of the Syrians at the word of Elisha was evidently mental blindness. If the entire army had been stricken with physical blindness, they would all have had to be led by hand. But the account simply says that Elisha told them: “This is not the way, and this is not the city. Follow me.” On this phenomenon William James in his Principles of Psychology, Volume 1, page 48, states: “A most interesting effect of cortical disorder is mental blindness. This consists not so much in insensibility of optical impressions, as in inability to understand them. Psychologically it is interpretable as loss of associations between optical sensations and what they signify; and any interruption of the paths between the optic centres and the centres for other ideas ought to bring it about.” This was possibly the kind of blindnes removed by Jehovah when the Syrian army reached Samaria.—2 Ki. 6:18-20.

Blindness disqualified a man from serving as a priest at Jehovah’s sanctuary. (Lev. 21:17, 18, 21-23) The sacrifice of an animal that was blind was also unacceptable to Jehovah. (Deut. 15:21; Mal. 1:8) But Jehovah’s law reflected consideration and sympathy for the blind. The one who put an obstacle in the way of a blind man or misled him was cursed. (Lev. 19:14; Deut. 27:18) God’s righteous servant Job said: “Eyes I became to the blind one.” (Job 29:15) Jehovah himself indicates that in time he will do away with blindness.—Isa. 35:5.

When Jesus Christ was on earth, he miraculously restored the sight of many blind persons. (Matt. 11:5; 15:30, 31; 21:14; Luke 7:21, 22) When Jesus was near Jericho he cured blind Bartimaeus and his companion. (Matt. 20:29-34; Mark 10:46-52; Luke 18:35-43)