“princes of the people” among the twenty-five men Ezekiel envisioned “scheming hurtfulness and advising bad counsel” against Jerusalem.—Ezek. 11:1, 2.

3. One of the “heads of the people” whose descendant, if not himself, attested by seal to Nehemiah’s “trustworthy arrangement.”—Neh. 10:1, 17; 9:38.

BAAL

(Baʹal) [master, owner]

1. The fourth-listed son of Jeiel, a Benjamite.—1 Chron. 8:30, 32; 9:35, 36.

2. A Reubenite whose son Beerah was among those taken captive by Assyrian “Tilgath-pilneser” (Tiglath-pileser).—1 Chron. 5:5, 6, 26.

3. A Simeonite enclave city within the territory of Judah, apparently the same as Baalath-beer and Ramah of the Negeb.—Compare 1 Chronicles 4:32, 33 and Joshua 19:7-9.

4. In the Scriptures, the Hebrew word baʹʽal is employed with reference to (1) a husband as owner of his wife (Gen. 20:3), (2) landowners (Josh. 24:11), (3) “owners of the nations” (Isa. 16:8), (4) confederates (literally, “owners of a covenant”) (Gen. 14:13), (5) owners or possessors of tangibles (Ex. 21:28, 34; 22:8; 2 Ki. 1:8), (6) persons or things having something that is characteristic of their nature, manner, occupation and the like; for example, an archer (literally, “owner of arrows”) (Gen. 49:23), a “creditor of [a] debt” (literally, “owner of [a] debt”) (Deut. 15:2), “given to anger” (literally, “owner of anger”) (Prov. 22:24), “my judicial antagonist” (literally, “owner of my judgment”) (Isa. 50:8), “possessing the two horns” (literally, “owner of the two horns”) (Dan. 8:6), (7) Jehovah (Hos. 2:16), (8) false gods.—Judg. 2:11, 13.

Whenever the term baʹ‘‏al applies to the false god Baal, it is generally distinguished from the common noun by the definite article. In the Scriptures, the expression hab-B^eʽa·limʹ (“the Baals”) seems to refer to the local deities thought of as owning or possessing and having influence over a particular place, whereas hab-Baʹʽal (“the Baal”) is the designation applied to a specific Canaanite god. It has been suggested that the designation “Baal” was originally a title and that this title in time came to be used almost exclusively instead of the name of the god.

At times in Israel’s history Jehovah was referred to as “Baal,” in the sense of his being the Lord or Husband of the nation. (Isa. 54:5) Also, the Israelites may have improperly associated Jehovah with Baal in their apostasy. The latter appears to be borne out by Hosea’s prophecy that the time would come when Israel, after going into and being restored from captivity, would repentantly call Jehovah “My husband,” and no more “My owner” (“My Baal,” AT). The context suggests that the designation “Baal” and its associations with the false god would never again pass the lips of the Israelites. (Hos. 2:9-17) The bad connotation that appears to have become attached to the Hebrew word baʹ‘‏al because of its association with the degraded worship of Baal is thought by some to be the reason why the writer of Second Samuel used the names “Ish-bosheth” and “Mephibosheth” (boʹsheth means shame) instead of “Eshbaal” and “Merib-baal.”—2 Sam. 2:8; 9:6; 1 Chron. 8:33, 34.

BAAL ACCORDING TO BIBLICAL AND EXTRABIBLICAL SOURCES

Little was known about Baal worship aside from the many Scriptural references to it until excavations at Ugarit (the modern Ras Shamra on the Syrian coast opposite the northeastern tip of the island of Cyprus) brought to light many religious artifacts and hundreds of clay tablets. Many of these ancient documents, now known as the Ras Shamra texts, are thought to be the liturgies of or words spoken by those participating in the rituals at the religious festivals.

In the Ras Shamra texts Baal (also called Aliyan [the one who prevails] Baal) is referred to as “Zabul [Prince], Lord of the Earth” and “the Rider of the Clouds.” This harmonizes with a representation of Baal, showing him as holding a club or mace in his right hand and a stylized lighting flash with a spearhead in his left. He is also depicted as wearing a helmet with horns, suggesting an intimate connection with the bull, a symbol of fertility.

Normally from late April to September there is hardly any rain in Palestine. In October the rains start and continue throughout winter and into April, resulting in abundant vegetation. The changes of the seasons and the resulting effects were thought to come in cycles because of the never-ending conflicts between the gods. The cessation of the rains and the dying of vegetation were attributed to the triumph of the god Mot (death and aridity) over Baal (rain and fertility), compelling Baal to withdraw into the depths of the earth. The beginning of the rainy season was believed to indicate that Baal had awakened to life. This, it was thought, was made possible by the triumph of Baal’s sister Anath over Mot, allowing her brother Baal to return to his throne. The mating of Baal with his wife, presumably Ashtoreth, was believed to ensure fertility for the coming year.

The farming and cattle-raising Canaanites probably thought that their engaging in a prescribed ritual, a sort of sympathetic magic, helped to stimulate their gods to action according to the pattern enacted at their religious festivals and was necessary to ensure productive crops and herds in the coming year and to avert droughts, locust plagues, and so forth. Hence Baal’s coming to life again to be enthroned and mated with his consort apparently was celebrated with licentious fertility rites, marked by sexual orgies of unrestrained debauchery.

Undoubtedly each Canaanite city built its Baal sanctuary in honor of its local patron Baal. Priests were appointed to conduct the worship at these sanctuaries and the many shrines on neighboring hilltops known as “high places.” (Compare 2 Kings 17:32.) Inside the shrines there may have been images or representations of Baal, whereas near the altars outside were to be found stone pillars (likely phallic symbols of Baal), sacred poles representing the goddess Asherah, and incense stands. (Compare 2 Chronicles 34:4-7.) Male and female prostitutes served at the high places and, besides ceremonial prostitution, even child sacrifice was practiced. (Compare 1 Kings 14:23, 24; Hosea 4:13, 14; Isaiah 57:5; Jeremiah 7:31; 19:5.) Worship of Baal was also carried out right on the housetops of the people, from where sacrificial smoke to their god was frequently seen to rise.—Jer. 32:29; see SACRED POLE.

There are indications that Baal and other gods and goddesses of the Canaanite pantheon were associated in the minds of their worshipers with certain heavenly bodies. For instance, one of the Ras Shamra texts mentions an offering to “Queen Shapash (the Sun) and to the stars,” and another alludes to “the army of the sun and the host of the day.” Baal, too, has been viewed as a sun-god, as noted by The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, Volume 1, page 345: “The Bab[ylonian] Bel-Merodach was a Sun-god, and so too was the Can[aanite] Baal whose full title was Baal-Shemaim, ‘lord of heaven.’”

It is, therefore, noteworthy that the Bible makes several references to the heavenly bodies in connection with Baal worship. Describing the wayward course of the kingdom of Israel, the Scriptural record states: “They kept leaving all the commandments of Jehovah . . . , and they began to bow down to all the army of the heavens and to serve Baal.” (2 Ki. 17:16) Concerning the kingdom of Judah, it is noted that right in the temple of Jehovah there came to be “utensils made for Baal and for the sacred pole and for all the army of the heavens.” Also, the people throughout Judah made “sacrificial smoke to Baal, to the sun and to the moon and to the constellations of the zodiac and to all the army of the heavens.”—2 Ki. 23:4, 5; 2 Chron. 33:3; see also Zephaniah 1:4, 5.

Each locality had its own Baal or divine “lord,” and the local Baal was often given a name denoting his being attached to a specific locality. For instance, the Baal of Peor (Baal-peor), worshiped by Moabites and Midianites, took his name from Mount Peor. (Num. 25:1-3, 6) The names of these local Baals later came to be transferred by a figure of speech (metonymy) to the localities themselves, as, for example, Baal-hermon, Baal-hazor, Baal-zephon, Bamoth-baal. However, although there were many local Baals, officially, among the Canaanites, it was understood that there was actually just one god Baal.

BAAL WORSHIP AMONG THE ISRAELITES

Baalism is implied early in the Bible, although apparently it had not reached the level of degradation in the days of the patriarchs that existed when the Israelites entered the land of Canaan. (Compare Genesis 15:16; 1 Kings 21:26.) The listing of the city of Ashteroth-karnaim, possibly named after Baal’s consort Ashtoreth, gives the first suggestion of it. (Gen. 14:5) Before the Israelites crossed the Red Sea, the location Baal-zephon could be seen in the wilderness. (Ex. 14:2, 9) With respect to the inhabitants of Canaan, specific warnings were given to Moses on Mount Sinai, to pull down their altars, shatter their sacred pillars and cut down their sacred poles. (Ex. 34:12-14) Thus all appendages of Baal worship were to be eradicated from the Promised Land.

While the Israelites were camped on the plains of Moab, King Balak took Balaam up to Bamoth-baal (meaning “High places of Baal”) to see the mighty throng. (Num. 22:41) After proving unsuccessful in bringing a curse directly upon the Israelites, Balaam advised Balak to lure them into idolatry through temptation to commit sexual immorality with the female idol worshipers of Baal of Peor. Thousands of Israelites succumbed to this temptation and lost their lives.—Num. 22:1–25:18; Rev. 2:14.

Despite this bitter experience and the clear warnings by Moses and Joshua (Deut. 7:25, 26; Josh. 24:15, 19, 20), the Israelites, in taking up residence in the land, began to imitate the remaining Canaanites, apparently with a view to ensuring fertility in their cattle and crops. At the same time, they carried on a pretense of worshiping Jehovah. Following the death of Joshua, wholesale apostasy set in. (Judg. 2:11-13; 3:5-8) The people kept altars, poles and other appendages of Baal worship in their fields, and apparently listened to their Canaanite neighbors as to how they might please the “owner” or Baal of each piece of land. The Israelites were also ensnared by the immoral practices associated with Baal worship. As a result Jehovah abandoned them to their enemies.

However, when the people turned back to him, Jehovah mercifully raised up judges to deliver them, such as Gideon, whose name was changed to Jerubbaal (meaning, “Let Baal make a legal defense against him”). (Judg. 6:25-32; 1 Sam. 12:9-11) But no permanent reform then took place. (Judg. 8:33; 10:6) Baalism continued to be practiced even beyond the days of Samuel, although it is written that, at his urgings, the people put away the Baals and Ashtoreth images and began serving Jehovah alone.—1 Sam. 7:3, 4.

Although we do not hear of Baalism again until the end of Solomon’s reign, it may have lingered on in parts of the kingdom. Many varieties of Baalism were introduced into the country as Solomon married his many heathen wives, and they induced him and their children to serve other gods and goddesses associated with Baal worship, such as Ashtoreth and Molech.—1 Ki. 11:4, 5, 33; Jer. 32:35.

With the split of the kingdom in 997 B.C.E., Jeroboam set up calf worship in the northern kingdom of Israel at Dan and Bethel. The native Baalism and the calf worship were carried on side by side, just as in Judah a semblance of true worship was carried on at Jerusalem as Baalism was also practiced throughout the land.—1 Ki. 14:22-24.

A different Baal cult was introduced into Israel in King Ahab’s day (c. 940-919 B.C.E.), that of Melkart, the Baal of Tyre. Ahab formed a marriage alliance with the daughter of the king of Tyre, named Ethbaal (meaning “with Baal”). This resulted in Ethbaal’s daughter, Jezebel, importing this more virile cult into Israel, with many priests and attendants. (1 Ki. 16:31-33) Finally, a famous showdown came at Mount Carmel between Jehovah and Baal.

Likely because Baal, believed to be the ‘lord of the sky,’ was regarded by his worshipers as the giver of rains and fertility, a drought was ordered by Elijah in the name of Jehovah. (1 Ki. 17:1) After three years and six months of drought, Baal having proved unable to bring an end to the drought in answer to the many appeals undoubtedly made by his priests and worshipers, Elijah summoned all the people to Mount Carmel to witness the great test as to who is the true God. The test resulted in the humiliation of the Baal worshipers and the slaughter of 450 Baal prophets. Jehovah, and not Baal, then brought rain to end the drought.—1 Ki. 18:18-46; Jas. 5:17.

Ahab’s son and successor, Ahaziah, continued to serve Baal. (1 Ki. 22:51-53) Ahaziah’s brother, Jehoram, succeeded him and it is reported that he removed the sacred pillar of Baal that his father had made, although he persisted in calf worship.—2 Ki. 3:1-3.

Later (c. 905 B.C.E.) Jehu was anointed king. He avenged the murder of Jehovah’s prophets by killing off Jezebel and the house of her husband Ahab. All the worshipers of Baal were then summoned to Samaria under pretense of holding “a solemn assembly for Baal.” At Jehu’s command all the Baal worshipers were killed. The sacred poles were burned and the sacred pillar and house of Baal were pulled down, the house being set aside for a public privy. With this it is said that Jehu “annihilated Baal out of Israel.” (2 Ki. 10:18-28) So, at least for the time, Baal worship was suppressed. However, it was on account of such Baalistic religion that Jehovah finally let the ten-tribe kingdom of Israel go into exile.—2 Ki. 17:16-18.

In Judah Baalism evidently remained entrenched, despite the efforts of the fifth Judean king, Asa, to remove its appendages. (2 Chron. 14:2-5) When Ahab married off Athaliah, his daughter by Jezebel, to Jehoram, the seventh Judean king, her wicked influence established Tyrian Baalism among the royal family in Judah. Even reforms at the beginning of the reign of Athaliah’s grandson, King Jehoash, and those later by King Hezekiah, did not effect permanent removal of Baal worship. (2 Ki. 11:18; 18:4) Hezekiah’s son Manasseh rebuilt the very high places that his father had destroyed. (2 Ki. 21:3) While apparently most of the Judean kings were contaminated with Baal worship, Manasseh was excessive in his pursuit of this degraded cult. (2 Ki. 21:9-11) King Manasseh’s later reform and even the extensive purge by his grandson, King Josiah, did not bring about a permanent return to true worship. Punishment by exile and desolation of the land was the result of this thorough contamination with false worship.—2 Chron. 33:10-17; 2 Ki. 23:4-27; Jer. 32:29.

Jeremiah carrying on his prophetic work from the days of Josiah to the captivity to Babylon, denounced Israel for degrading herself by Baal worship, likening Israel to an adulterous wife who prostituted herself under every luxuriant tree and on every high place, committing adultery with stones and trees, and forgetting Jehovah, “the husbandly owner of you people.” (Jer. 2:20-27; 3:9, 14) After the captivity to Babylon and the return of the Jews to Palestine, Baalism is not mentioned in the Bible as being practiced by the Israelites.—See CANAAN, CANAANITE; GODS AND GODDESSES.

[Picture on page 171]

Stele of Baal, a Canaanite god, found at Ras Shamra in 1932

BAALAH

(Baʹal·ah) [mistress, possessor].

1. A city on the N border of Judah, also called Kiriath-baal but better known as Kiriath-jearim.—Josh. 15:9, 10, 60; 18:14; 1 Chron. 13:6; see KIRIATH-JEARIM.

2. A mountain in the NW corner of Judah, between the towns of Shikkeron and Jabneel, forming part of the N boundary of Judah’s territory. (Josh. 15:11) It may possibly be identified with the hill of Mughar just N of the Valley of Sorek and about seven miles (11 kilometers) in from the Mediterranean coast.

3. A town in the Negeb region of Judah (Josh. 15:29), evidently referred to as Balah in Joshua 19:3, and Bilhah in 1 Chronicles 4:29. It was subsequently allotted to the tribe of Simeon as an enclave city. Its specific location is unknown, but evidently it lay to the SE of Beer-sheba.

BAALATH

(Baʹal·ath) [mistress].

A border town of the original territory of Dan, mentioned at Joshua 19:44, 45 as being between Gibbethon and Jehud. It is evidently the same place that Solomon later included in his rebuilding program. (2 Chron. 8:5, 6) Its identification geographically is uncertain; Josephus (Antiquities of the Jews, Book VIII, chap. VI, par. 1) refers to it along with Beth-horon as not far from Gezer, another fortified city.—1 Ki. 9:17, 18.

BAALATH-BEER

(Baʹal·ath-beʹer) [mistress of a well].

An enclave city of Simeon within the territorial limits of Judah. (Josh. 19:1, 8) Also called “Ramah of the south” (or Negeb), it is evidently referred to simply as Baal at 1 Chronicles 4:33 and may be the same as the “Ramoth of the south” at 1 Samuel 30:27. The references to it would place it S of Beer-sheba, well into the Negeb.

BAAL-BERITH

(Baʹal-beʹrith) [lord of a covenant; alternately, El-berith, God of a covenant].

The Baal of Shechem, whom the Israelites began worshiping after the death of Judge Gideon. (Judg. 8:33) The designation “Baal-berith” may denote that this particular Baal was believed to watch the keeping of covenants.

A kind of treasury was evidently attached to the house or temple of Baal-berith at Shechem. (Judg. 9:4) In connection with the grape harvest, the Shechemites apparently held a festival in honor of Baal-berith, climaxed by a kind of sacrificial meal in the temple of their god. It was in the temple of Baal-berith on the occasion of their eating and drinking and cursing Abimelech, likely under the influence of wine, that Gaal incited the Shechemites to revolt against King Abimelech. (Judg. 9:27-29) Later, when threatened by Abimelech, the landowners of the tower of Shechem (Migdal-Shechem, AT) sought refuge in the vault of the house of El-berith (Baal-berith), only to perish in the conflagration when Abimelech and his men set the vault on fire.—Judg. 9:46-49.

BAALE-JUDAH

See KIRIATH-JEARIM.

BAAL-GAD

(Baʹal-gad) [lord of good fortune].

A town in the valley plain of Lebanon at the base of Mount Hermon, on its W side. It is used to describe the most northerly point of Joshua’s conquest of the land of Canaan, as compared with the southerly point of Mount Halak in the Negeb. (Josh. 11:17; 12:7; 13:5) The exact location is uncertain, but it is generally identified with Hasbeya in the Wadi et-Teim or a site nearby.

BAAL-HAMON

(Baʹal-haʹmon) [lord (or owner) of abundance, or, of wealth].

A place mentioned at Song of Solomon 8:11 as the location of a productive vineyard of King Solomon. No indication is given as to its site. While many view it as a literal location, some suggest that it is used in this poetic writing figuratively to represent the realm over which Solomon ruled and which produced great wealth.—Compare 1 Kings 4:20, 21.

BAAL-HANAN

(Baʹal-haʹnan) [Baal is gracious].

1. Son of Achbor; the seventh of eight kings of Edom who ruled “before any king reigned over the sons of Israel.”—Gen. 36:31, 38, 39; 1 Chron. 1:49, 50.

2. The Gederite whom David made chief “over the olive groves and the sycamore trees that were in the Shephelah.”—1 Chron. 27:28, 31.

BAAL-HAZOR

(Baʹal-haʹzor) [lord of the enclosure, or, owner of a village].

A place near “Ephraim” (perhaps the city of Ephrain(m) mentioned at 2 Chronicles 13:19; compare John 11:54) that served as the site of Absalom’s sheepshearing festival in which he maneuvered the death of his brother Amnon. (2 Sam. 13:23, 28) It is identified with the 3,333-foot (1,016-meter) high mountain Jebel ʽAsur, about four and a half miles (7.2 kilometers) NE of Bethel. There may have been a village by the same name at the base of the mountain. From Baal-hazor Absalom fled to the small kingdom of Geshur, E of the Sea of Galilee.

BAAL-HERMON

(Baʹal-herʹmon) [lord of Hermon, or, of the sacred mountain].

This name appears at Judges 3:3 and 1 Chronicles 5:23. In the first instance it describes a point in the region inhabited by the Sidonians and the Hivites who remained unconquered by the Israelites, and it is here referred to as “Mount Baal-hermon.” It is usually identified with Mount Hermon itself, but may refer to the Hermon range in general or to some portion thereof. At 1 Chronicles 5:23 “Baal-hermon” is used along with Senir and Mount Hermon and the region of Bashan to outline the territory occupied by the half tribe of Manasseh. While it may refer to a town or place near Mount Hermon, it may likewise be a designation for the mountainous region of Hermon.—See HERMON.

BAALIS

(Baʹa·lis) [perhaps, son of delight].

King of Ammon, who reportedly sent Ishmael to murder Governor Gedaliah of Judah, 607 B.C.E.—Jer. 40:14.

BAAL-MEON

(Baʹal-meʹon) [lord or master of the habitation].

A prominent town on the tableland of N Moab assigned to the tribe of Reuben along with Nebo, Kiriathaim and other towns of the region.