were able to converse with the people of Canaan without the need of an interpreter, and it may also be noted that, while some place-names of a non-Semitic type were used, most of the towns and cities captured by the Israelites already bore Semitic names. Still, Philistine kings in Abraham’s time and also, evidently, David’s time, were called “Abimelech” (Gen. 20:2; 21:32; Psalm 34, superscription), a thoroughly Semitic name (or title), whereas it is nowhere contended that the Philistines were a Semitic race. So, it would appear that the Canaanite tribes, over a period of some centuries from the time of the confusion of tongues at Babel (Gen. 11:8, 9), apparently changed over to a Semitic tongue from their original Hamitic language. This may have been due to their close association with the Aramaic-speaking peoples of Syria, or as a result of Mesopotamian domination for a period of time, or for other reasons not now apparent. Such a change would be no greater than that of other ancient nations, such as the ancient Persians, who, though of Indo-European (Japhetic) stock, later adopted the Semitic Aramaean language and alphabet.

The “language of Canaan” referred to at Isaiah 19:18 would by then (eighth century B.C.E.) be the Hebrew language, the principal language of the land.

CANALS

Waterways, usually artificial, for irrigation, flood control, navigation and water supply for towns and cities. Canals have been used from very early times.

PALESTINE

In Palestine, irrigation was not so vital to the economy as in Egypt and Babylonia, where there was less rainfall, and where fewer springs, streams and wells existed. (Deut. 11:10, 11) There was little opportunity for irrigation in the wilderness of Judah or in southern Judah. Nevertheless, some irrigating of gardens was done in Palestine, and conduits were built to carry water into Jerusalem particularly.

Tradition ascribes to Solomon the construction of a conduit from the “Pools of Solomon,” beyond Bethlehem, to the temple enclosure at Jerusalem. At Ecclesiastes 2:6, Solomon says: “I made pools of water for myself, to irrigate with them the forest.” So large an undertaking of the building of the pools could well have included such a conduit for the larger supply of water needed at Jerusalem when the temple services were instituted. However, there is no evidence, other than tradition, to support the Solomonic origin of this conduit. At a later date a conduit was constructed to carry water from the springs in the modern-day Wadi el-’arrub in the plain of Berachah a little S of Tekoa. The conduit ran N, by Tekoa, to Jerusalem. It is called the “low-level aqueduct.” This conduit is apparently the one alluded to by Josephus, who says that it was constructed by Pontius Pilate. (Antiquities of the Jews, Book XVIII, chap. III, par. 2; Wars of the Jews, Book II, chap. IX, par. 4) Part of this conduit has existed to modern times.

The “high-level aqueduct,” which probably entered Jerusalem at the Jaffa Gate, is thought by some to have been built by Herod the Great, beginning at the Wadi el-Biyar N of Tekoa. It may have been made to supply Herod’s citadel and palace and the canals in his palace gardens. (Josephus’ Wars of the Jews, Book V, chap. IV, par. 4) This aqueduct ran through a tunnel and passed over the valley in which were located the “Pools of Solomon.” The siphon principle was apparently employed at one point.

Other canals, aqueducts and conduits, cisterns, pools and reservoirs were built by the early inhabitants of Palestine, by the kings of Israel and Judah, and by the Romans.—2 Ki. 18:17; 20:20; 2 Chron. 32:30; Isa. 7:3; 22:9-11; 36:2, see GIHON No. 2; FORTIFICATIONS.

EGYPT

Egypt, being virtually without rain, depended on the overflow of the Nile River for water. Each year it spread over the flat land and deposited silt brought down from the Upper Nile watershed, giving the land a new layer of soil. Crops grew abundantly. To control the water and to preserve it between the Nile inundations, an irrigation system of dikes, canals, pools and ditches was constructed, controlled by the government. One method of raising the water to a higher level, in use until this day, was the shaduf. A container suspended on one end of a counterbalanced pole was lowered into the river or canal and raised by the operator, emptying the water into a basin or canal at the next height. The Bible speaks of the Israelites in Egypt as doing irrigating with the foot, which may have reference to the use of a foot-powered waterwheel or to the practice of turning the water into different channels by pushing the earth with the foot or opening the wall of a channel to divert the flow.—Deut. 11:10, NW, ftn., 1953 ed.

A canal that seems to have been in existence in the time of Seti I (latter half of the second millennium B.C.E.) is thought by some to have extended from the northern tip of the Red Sea to the eastern branch of the Nile Delta. This would enable Pharaoh’s ships to sail from the Mediterranean down the Nile branch into the Red Sea. Later, Pharaoh Necho, in the seventh century B.C.E., began to build another canal, but this was uncompleted. Later rulers did work on the channel. Finally, Ptolemy Philadelphus (285-246 B.C.E.) connected the canal with the Red Sea. In Cleopatra’s time (51-30 B.C.E.) it was in disuse. Later work on the canal is attributed by some to Trajan (98-117 C.E.) and by others to the Moslems.

MESOPOTAMIA

The land between the Euphrates and the Tigris Rivers receives very little rainfall, but during the rainy season the rivers rise menacingly and overflow the land, making the southern part of Mesopotamia a wilderness “sea.” To avoid catastrophic floods and to retain some of the water for later use, an elaborate system of dikes, sluices, canals and catch basins was built. In digging a canal the earth from it was thrown up on each side as an embankment. Large sluices regulated the water flow. Channels cut in the embankment could be quickly blocked or opened to control the flow into small trenches that watered the gardens. The shaduf and other means were used to raise the water to areas with an elevation higher than the canal. While the land between the rivers is desolate without water, it is exceedingly fertile when irrigated.

Traces of canals and embankments, long ago filled with silt, are faintly visible. In an effort to preserve a canal, from time to time the reeds choking the channel were cut, partial dredging was done and the embankments made higher. But it was a gradually losing battle. Finally, the fast flow of silt would raise the level of the canal bottom so high that it was necessary to abandon it and dig a new canal bed.

Documents unearthed in archaeological diggings reveal that the rulers of Mesopotamia regarded it as a duty and an act of piety to maintain and improve the canal system, and, indeed, it was essential to the economy. The digging of a canal was an event of outstanding importance, comparable to a victory in battle, the acquisition of territory or the building of a temple. Prisoners captured in warfare were used as forced labor to maintain the canal systems.

The canals also furnished Babylonia with a means of communication and transportation of goods. Shallow basketlike vessels and rafts carried merchandise to and from the sea. By means of these the products of the fertile land to the N of Babylon were brought down for sale. Ancient Babylon was a commercial depot between the Eastern and Western world, having many ships in the Persian Gulf. It is said to have had a fleet of 3,000 galleys in its heyday.—Isa. 43:14.

The canal system being the means of communication between towns, business offices were set up along the riverbanks in the cities. From these the conducting of business was controlled and rates of exchange, and so forth, were regulated. The river Chebar may have been a part of a canal system in the area of the Euphrates with the Tigris. (Ezek. 1:1) The river Ahava mentioned at Ezra 8:21 may also have been a canal.

The remains of an aqueduct built by King Sennacherib of Assyria demonstrates the concern of rulers for a water supply for their cities. This canal was part of Sennacherib’s great irrigation project for conveying water from the northern mountains to Nineveh, a distance of thirty miles (48 kilometers). In one place it was elevated like a bridge to cross a small river, the valley of which was about 1,000 feet (305 meters) wide.

CANANAEAN

(Ca·na·naeʹan) [jealous one, zealot].

A designation distinguishing the apostle Simon from the apostle Simon Peter. (Matt. 10:4; Mark 3:18) The term “Cananaean” is thought to be of Aramaic origin and apparently corresponds to the Greek word ze·lo·tesʹ meaning “zealot; enthusiast.”—Luke 6:15; Acts 1:13.

CANDACE

(Can·daʹce) [perhaps, queen].

A queen of Ethiopia whose treasurer became a Christian. (Acts 8:27) Rather than being a specific personal name, “Candace,” like “Pharaoh” and “Caesar,” is considered to be a title. Ancient writers, including Strabo, Pliny the Elder and Eusebius, used this designation in referring to queens of Ethiopia. Pliny the Elder (c. 23-79 C.E.), in his Natural History, writes: “The edifices of the city [Meroe, capital of ancient Ethiopia] were few; a woman reigned there of the name of Candace, which name had been transmitted to these queens for many years.”

CANE

See CALAMUS, CANE.

CANNEH

(Canʹneh).

A place mentioned between Haran and Eden as among the traders of ancient Tyre. (Ezek. 27:23) Its association with Haran and Eden would seem to place it in northern Mesopotamia, along the middle course of the Euphrates River. Many authorities view the name as a contracted form of Calneh.

CANON

Canon (of the Bible) [Heb. qa·nehʹ, “reed”; Gr., ka·nonʹ, “reed, measuring rod, straightedge”].

Originally the reed served as a rule or measuring device. (Ezek. 40:3-8; 41:8; 42:16-19) The apostle Paul applied ka·nonʹ to the “boundary” of territory measured out as his assignment, and again to the “rule of conduct” by which Christians were to measure how they acted, the “routine” according to which they were to walk orderly. (2 Cor. 10:13-16; Gal. 6:16; compare Philippians 3:16.) The “Bible canon” came to denote the catalog of inspired books worthy of being used as a straightedge in measuring faith, doctrine and conduct.—See BIBLE.

The mere writing of a religious book, its preservation for hundreds of years, and its esteem by millions, do not mean it is of divine origin or canonical. It must bear credentials of Divine Authorship demonstrating that it was inspired by God. The apostle Peter states: “Prophecy was at no time brought by man’s will, but men spoke from God as they were borne along by holy spirit.” (2 Pet. 1:21) An examination of the Bible canon shows that its contents measure up to this criterion in every respect.

HEBREW SCRIPTURES

The Bible began with the writings of Moses, 1513 B.C.E. In these are preserved God’s commandments and precepts to Adam, Noah, Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, and the regulations of the Law covenant. What is called the Pentateuch includes the five books of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy. Job, likely written also by Moses, fills in history after the death of Joseph (1657 B.C.E.) and before the birth of Moses (1593 B.C.E.), a time when there was “no one like [Job] in the earth.” (Job 1:8; 2:3) Moses, it is believed, also wrote Psalms 90 and 91.

That these writings of Moses were of divine origin, inspired of God, canonical and a safe guideline for pure worship, there can be no doubt, in the light of internal evidence. It was not through Moses’ initiative that he became the leader and commander of the Israelites; at first Moses drew back at the suggestion. (Ex. 3:10, 11; 4:10-14) Rather, God raised Moses up and invested in him such miraculous powers that even Pharaoh’s magic-practicing priests were compelled to acknowledge that what Moses did originated with God. (Ex. 4:1-9; 8:16-19) So it was not Moses’ personal ambition to be an orator and writer. Rather, in obedience to God’s command, and with the divine credentials of holy spirit, Moses was moved first to speak and then to write down part of the Bible canon.—Ex. 17:14.

Jehovah himself set the precedent for having laws and commandments written down. After speaking to Moses in Mount Sinai Jehovah “proceeded to give Moses two tablets of the Testimony, tablets of stone written on by God’s finger.” (Ex. 31:18) Later we read, “And Jehovah went on to say to Moses: ‘Write down for yourself these words.’” (Ex. 34:27) Jehovah, therefore, was the one who communicated with Moses and instructed him to write down and preserve the first five books of the Bible canon. No council of men made them canonical; from their inception they had divine approval.

“As soon as Moses had finished writing the words of this law in a book,” he commanded the Levites, saying: “Taking this book of the law, you must place it at the side of the ark of the covenant of Jehovah your God, and it must serve as a witness there against you.” (Deut. 31:9, 24-26) It is noteworthy that Israel acknowledged this record of God’s dealings and did not deny these facts as historical. Since the contents of the books in many instances were a discredit to the nation generally, the people might well have been expected to reject them if possible, but this never seems to have been an issue.

Like Moses, the priestly class were used by God both to preserve these written commandments and to teach them to the people. When the Ark was brought into Solomon’s temple (1027 B.C.E.), nearly five hundred years after Moses began writing the Pentateuch, the two stone tablets were still in the Ark (1 Ki. 8:9), and 385 years after that, when “the very book of the law” was found in the house of Jehovah during Josiah’s eighteenth year (642 B.C.E), the same high regard for it was still shown. (2 Ki. 22:3, 8-20) Similarly, there was “great rejoicing” when, after the return from Babylonian exile, Ezra read from the book of the law during an eight-day assembly.—Neh. 8:5-18.

Following Moses’ death, the writings of Joshua, Samuel, Gad and Nathan (Joshua, Judges, Ruth, 1 and 2 Samuel) were added. Kings David and Solomon also made contributions to the growing canon of Holy Writings. Then came the prophets from Jonah to Malachi, each contributing to the Bible canon, each endowed with miraculous prophetic ability from God, each in turn meeting the requirements of true prophets as outlined by Jehovah, namely, they spoke in the name of Jehovah, their prophecy came true, and they turned the people toward God. (Deut. 13:1-3; 18:20-22) When Hananiah and Jeremiah were tested on the last two points (both spoke in Jehovah’s name), only the words of Jeremiah came to pass. Thus Jeremiah proved to be Jehovah’s prophet.—Jer. 28:10-17.

Just as Jehovah inspired men to write, it logically follows that he would direct and watch over the