sense of the habitual practice of publicly asking for charity.

The patriarchal arrangement, which the Bible indicates existed prior to and after the global flood of Noah’s day, doubtless served greatly to prevent situations where individuals would find themselves isolated, in dire straits, and dependent upon public charity, and thus it worked against the development of a pauper class. From ancient times hospitality to strangers or travelers seems to have been quite freely practiced; such hospitality is at least reflected in the Biblical accounts, with rare exceptions. (Gen. 19:1-3; Ex. 2:18-20; Judg. 19:15-21) The development of cities is considered to have contributed to the weakening of the patriarchal arrangement and possibly this, together with a selfish tendency to take undue advantage of the hospitality or charity of others, led to the development of begging among humankind.

Begging or mendicancy is apparently of very ancient origin in the lands of the Orient. This makes all the more notable the fact that in the Hebrew Scriptures there is no indication that begging existed to any degree or constituted a particular problem in the nation of Israel from the time of its formation until its going into exile in Babylon. When moving out of Egypt and their slavery in that land, the Israelites “went asking [a form of the Hebrew verb sha·ʼalʹ] from the Egyptians articles of silver and articles of gold and mantles. . . . and they stripped the Egyptians.” (Ex. 12:35, 36) This, however, was in accord with God’s command and prophecy and was evidently viewed as just compensation for their long years of slave labor and the injustices endured by them at the hands of the Egyptians. (Ex. 3:21, 22; compare Deuteronomy 15:12-15.) It set no precedent for the practice of begging.

The Mosaic law contained forceful legislation on behalf of the poor, which, when observed, removed all cause for begging. (Lev. 19:9, 10; Deut. 15:7-10; 24:19-21; see GIFTS OF MERCY.) The Hebrew Scriptures strongly express trust in God’s providence for those adhering to righteousness, even as David in his old age exclaimed: “I have not seen anyone righteous left entirely, nor his offspring looking for [“begging,” AV; a form of the Hebrew ba·qashʹ] bread,” even though such righteous ones themselves are shown to be openhanded in their generosity. (Ps. 37:25, 26; contrast with the experience of apostate Jerusalem at Lamentations 1:11; 4:4.) On the other hand, Proverbs (20:4) portrays the lazy man as “begging in reaping time,” and the psalmist (109:10) describes the execution of punishment on the wicked as obliging “his sons [to] go wandering about; and they must do begging, and they must look for food from their desolate places.” In these two latter texts the word “begging” translates the Hebrew sha·ʼalʹ, which term basically means simply to ask or request (as at Exodus 3:22); however, in these two cases the implication is that the asking is done in the active, and perhaps public, manner characterizing begging.

It appears that, during the period from the time of the Jews’ return from exile (537 B.C.E.) down to the time of Jesus’ appearance on the earthly scene, the concept developed among the Jews that the act of giving “alms” or gifts of charity had merit in itself toward salvation. This is evidenced by the statement contained in the apocryphal book of Ecclesiasticus (3:30) (believed to have been written about the second century B.C.E.) that “almsgiving atones for sins.” Such view undoubtedly served to encourage begging. (Compare the much publicized giving denounced by Jesus in Matthew 6:2.)

Domination by the foreign powers brought oppression to the Jewish people and doubtless caused considerable disruption of the application of the Mosaic law concerning ancestral land rights and similar provisions. This, together with false religious philosophies, which failed to inculcate a genuine and principled love of neighbor (Matt. 23:23; Luke 10:29-31), also likely shared responsibility for the growth of begging in Palestine. Thus we find a number of references in the Christian Greek Scriptures to beggars in that land.

The blind, the lame and the diseased figure among the beggars described in the time of Jesus and the apostles. Ophthalmia (a disease of the eyes still common in the Near East) perhaps caused some of the blindness among these men. (Mark 10:46-49; Luke 16:20, 22; 18:35-43; John 9:1-8; Acts 3:2-10) Like beggars today, they often situated themselves along public thoroughfares or near places frequented by crowds, as at the temple. Despite the prominence given to almsgiving, beggars were looked down upon, so that the steward of Jesus’ parable said, “I am ashamed to beg [from Gr., e·pai·teʹo, an intensified form of the verb ai·teʹo, meaning ‘to ask’].”—Luke 16:3.

The Greek word pto·khosʹ, used by Luke (16:20, 22) in recording Jesus’ reference to Lazarus as a beggar, describes one who crouches and cringes and refers not merely to the poor but to the very poor, the destitute, the beggars. It is noteworthy that this same term is used at Matthew 5:3 with regard to those “conscious of their spiritual need [‘those who are beggars for the spirit,’ ftn. 1950 ed.]” (“poor in spirit,” AV), and concerning the use of pto·khosʹ in this text Vincent’s Word Studies in the New Testament comments: “. . . it is very graphic and appropriate here, as denoting the utter spiritual destitution, the consciousness of which precedes the entrance into the kingdom of God, and which cannot be relieved by one’s own efforts, but only by the free mercy of God.”

This same term is also used by Paul at Galatians 4:9 in expressing his concern over those who were “turning back again to the weak and beggarly [pto·khaʹ] elementary things” formerly practiced. Such things were “beggarly” in comparison with the spiritual riches obtainable through Christ Jesus.

Although Jesus and his apostles showed kindness to beggars, they did not encourage begging; though they gratefully accepted hospitality, they did not beg. Jesus told those who followed him merely to obtain bread that their concern should be, not for “the food that perishes, but for the food that remains for life everlasting.” (John 6:26, 27) Peter told a lame beggar at the temple: “Silver and gold I do not possess, but what I do have is what I give you,” using his spiritual gifts to heal the man. (Acts 3:6) Though at times hungry, lacking clothing and homeless, the apostles toiled, ‘working with their own hands, night and day, so as not to be a burden on others.’ (1 Cor. 4:11, 12; 1 Thess. 2:9) The standard among Christians was: “If anyone does not want to work, neither let him eat.”—2 Thess. 3:10-12.

BEHEADING

A mode of capital punishment not prescribed by the Mosaic law. It was one form of execution that existed in most of the nations. In Israel, when a beheading was performed, it was usually after slaying the individual and was generally done to bring the person’s death before public attention as a reproach or as a public notice of judgment or warning.

Pharaoh ‘lifted up the head from off’ his chief baker, evidently beheading him. (Gen. 40:19) David, after felling Goliath with a stone from his sling, took Goliath’s sword and “definitely put him to death” by beheading him before the armies of Israel and the Philistines. This threw great fear into the Philistine army and resulted in a mighty rout. (1 Sam. 17:51, 52) The Philistines cut Saul’s head from his body after his death, then hung his body with that of his sons on the wall of the city of Beth-shan. (1 Sam. 31:9, 12) Rechab and Baanah, wicked men, killed Saul’s son Ish-bosheth, and beheaded him in order to take his head to David, thinking they would gain David’s favor. For this David had them put to death. (2 Sam. 4:5-12) In order to save their city, the people of the city of Abel of Beth-maacah acted on the counsel of a wise woman, to cut off the head of Sheba the son of Bichri, which they pitched over the wall to Joab. Whether Sheba was killed before beheading is not stated. (2 Sam. 20:15, 21, 22) The older and distinguished men of Samaria slaughtered the seventy sons of Ahab and sent their heads in baskets to Jehu at Jezreel, where they were displayed in two heaps at the city gate as evidence of the fulfillment of Jehovah’s judgment spoken by Elijah.—2 Ki. 10:6-10; 1 Ki. 21:20-22.

The Bible records that Herod Antipas had John the Baptist beheaded in prison at the request of the daughter of Herodias. (Matt. 14:8-11; Mark 6:24-28; Luke 9:9) Herod Agrippa I did away with James the brother of John and son of Zebedee by the sword, whether by beheading or not is not revealed. (Acts 12:1, 2; Matt. 4:21) According to tradition, the apostle Paul was put to death by Emperor Nero for preaching the good news of the Kingdom. Beheading is thought to have been the means used, since it was not lawful to put a Roman citizen to death by scourging or impaling. John, in a vision, “saw the souls of those executed with the ax for the witness they bore to Jesus and for speaking about God.”—Rev. 20:4.

Many men were doubtless killed in battle by beheading or were beheaded after falling. An Assyrian monumental bas-relief shows numerous decapitated bodies of fallen soldiers near a burning enemy city, with the chariot of victorious King Sargon rolling over them.—See CRIME AND PUNISHMENT.

BEHEMOTH

(Be·heʹmoth).

The designation “Behemoth,” appearing at Job 40:15, has been variously viewed as (1) a derivative of an Egyptian word for “water ox,” (2) a word possibly of Assyrian origin meaning “monster” and (3) an intensified plural of the Hebrew word b^ehe·mahʹ (wild beast) that is understood to denote “great” or “huge beast.” In the Septuagint Version the Greek word the·riʹa (wild beasts) translates the Hebrew b^ehe·mohthʹ. (Job 40:10, Bagster’s) Evidently, though, a single animal is meant, as indicated by the fact that the description given of behemoth is not that of several creatures but only of one, generally considered to be the hippopotamus. In fact, a number of Bible translations (see AT, Lamsa, Ro, NW 1957 ed., JB, RS) use the word “hippopotamus” in the main text or in footnotes to identify the creature referred to by God.

The hippopotamus is a huge, thick-skinned, almost hairless mammal that frequents rivers, lakes and swamps. It is noted for its short legs, huge jaws and large head, which is said to weigh up to a ton. So great is the power in its jaw and teeth that one bite can pierce the armor of a crocodile. Full grown it may be twelve to fourteen feet (3.7 to 4.3 meters) long and may weigh up to 8,000 pounds (3,629 kilograms). An amphibious creature, the hippopotamus, in spite of its prodigious size, can move relatively fast both in and out of water. It feeds on soft water plants, grass, reeds and bushes, taking more than 200 pounds (90 kilograms) of greenery into its forty- or fifty-gallon (151- or 189-liter) stomach every day.

Some of the marvelous equipment of the hippopotamus to fit it for its amphibious life is worthy of note. The skin of the hide, especially that of the belly, is extremely tough, hence able to withstand bumping and scraping as the hippopotamus drags its low body over sticks and stones of riverbeds. The nostrils are strategically located at the tip of the snout and the eyes high up on the front of the head, enabling the hippopotamus both to breathe and to see while it is almost completely submerged. The ears and valvelike nostrils close when it submerges. Even while sleeping, when the carbon dioxide in the blood reaches a certain level, the animal automatically surfaces for fresh air and then submerges again. The skin of this creature exudes large drops of oil that, in sunlight, take on a pink color. This oily substance seems to keep its skin moist and pliable under the hot sun and, at the same time, forms a protective veneer when the hippopotamus submerges.

At one time the hippopotamus was found in most of the large lakes and rivers of Africa, but, as a result of man’s hunting, it has disappeared from many regions and is said to be unknown N of the cataract at Khartoum, in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. In ancient times the hippopotamus may even have frequented the Jordan. In fact, it is reported that tusks and bones of this creature have been found in various parts of Palestine.

The description in the fortieth chapter of the book of Job offers a vivid word picture of this huge mammal, behemoth. It is accurately described as being herbivorous. (Vs. 15) Then, the sources of its tremendous power and energy are noted to be in the hips and in the tendons of its belly, that is, the muscles of its back and those of its belly. (Vs. 16) The tail of behemoth is like a cedar. Since the tail is fairly short, measuring about eighteen to twenty inches (46 to 51 centimeters), this is likely to be understood as meaning that the animal can set its thick tail rigidly upright or swing it about like a tree. “The sinews of its thighs are interwoven,” so that the fiber and tendons of muscles of its thighs are twisted together and braided like powerful cables. (Vs. 17) The bones of its legs are as strong as “tubes of copper,” thus being able to support the ponderous weight of the body. The bones and ribs are like wrought-iron rods. (Vs. 18) The behemoth’s immense consumption of food is alluded to (Vs. 20), and mention is made of its relaxing under the thorny lotus trees or concealing itself in a swampy place, beneath the shade of the poplars. (Vss. 21, 22) Even when a river overflows its banks, this creature does not panic, for it can still keep its head above the level of water and swim against the force of the deluge. (Vs. 23) Since behemoth is so mighty and formidably equipped with jaws and teeth, would a man have the hardihood to try to confront such a monster before its eyes and try to pierce its nose with a hook?—Vs. 24.

BEHTH

Behth, or, as commonly anglicized, beth [ב]. The second letter in the Hebrew alphabet. The name assigned to the letter means “house.” Later, as a number, outside the Hebrew Scriptures, it denoted two.

It has a labial sound similar to the English “b” when the dagesh lene (a dot placed in the middle of this Hebrew character used to harden the letter’s pronunciation, as בּ) is added. Without the dot it has a softer sound close to “v,” as in the word “vine.”

In the Hebrew, the opening word in each of the eight verses of Psalm 119:9-16 begins with this letter, in keeping with the style of the psalm.—See ALPHABET.

BEL

[Lord].

A title that may have been first applied to the god Enlil, meaning “chief demon.” Worshiped as the god of the earth, air and storm, Bel or Enlil, together with Anu the “god of the sky” and Ea the “god of the waters,” constituted a triad. When Hammurabi became king and made Babylon the principal city of all Babylonia, naturally greater importance came to be attached to Marduk (Merodach) the patron god of Babylon. Finally, Marduk was given the attributes of the earlier gods and even displaced them in the Babylonian myths. For example, the triumph over Tiamat, believed to have been ascribed to Enlil in an earlier, though not extant, account, came to be attributed to Marduk. Also, Enlil’s title “Bel” was transferred to Marduk. In later periods his proper name “Marduk” was displaced by the title Belu (“Lord”), so that finally he was commonly spoken of as Bel. His consort was called Belit (“Lady,” par excellence).

The following parts of a prayer addressed to Bel give some insight as to how the Babylonians viewed this god: