the 127 jurisdictional districts of the Persian Empire. (Esther 1:1; 3:8) Even certain descendants of the exiles still found positions high in government office: for example, Mordecai and Esther under the Persian king Ahasuerus (Xerxes I), and Nehemiah as royal cupbearer to Artaxerxes I. (Esther 9:29-31; 10:2, 3; Neh. 1:11) Ezra, when compiling Chronicles, wrote that many of those dispersed in various eastern cities “continue until this day” (c. 460 B.C.E.). (1 Chron. 5:26) With the rise of the Grecian Empire, a considerable number of Jews was brought by Alexander the Great to his new Egyptian city of Alexandria, where they learned to speak Greek. It was there that translating the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek to produce the Septuagint Version was begun in the third century B.C.E. The Syro-Egyptian wars brought about the transferal of many Jews into Asia Minor and into Egypt respectively. Pompey, upon conquering Jerusalem in 63 B.C.E., took Jews to Rome as slaves.

The great dispersion of Jews throughout the Roman Empire was a factor contributing to the rapid spread of Christianity. Jesus Christ limited his own preaching to the soil of Palestine, but commanded his followers to reach out and spread their ministry “to the most distant part of the earth.” (Acts 1:8) Jews from different parts of the Roman Empire were in Jerusalem attending the Pentecost festival in 33 C.E., and heard the spirit-begotten Christians preaching about Jesus in the languages of Parthia, Media, Elam, Mesopotamia, Cappadocia, Pontus, the district of Asia, Phrygia, Pamphylia, Egypt, Libya, Crete, Arabia and Rome. Thousands, upon returning to their lands, took with them their newly found Christianity. (Acts 2:1-11) In most of the cities Paul visited he found synagogues where he could readily speak to Jews of the Dispersion. In Lystra Paul met Timothy, whose mother was a Jewess. Aquila and Priscilla were newly arrived from Rome when Paul got to Corinth, c. 50 C.E. (Acts 13:14; 14:1; 16:1; 17:1, 2; 18:1, 2, 7; 19:8) The great numbers of Jews in Babylon made it worth Peter’s effort to go there to carry on his ministry among “those who are circumcised.” (Gal. 2:8; 1 Pet. 5:13) This community of Jews in Babylon continued as the most important center of Judaism for quite some time after the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 C.E.

CARCHEMISH

(Carʹche·mish).

An important trade center situated on the W bank of the upper Euphrates at one of the main fords of that river. A principal trade route ran from Nineveh up to Haran (only about 55 miles [88.5 kilometers] E of Carchemish), then crossed the Euphrates at Carchemish and continued on to the Orontes valley in Lebanon, from which point other routes led to the Mediterranean or S to Palestine and Egypt. Caravans passing through provided revenue in the form of taxes, and the city evidently became quite wealthy.

Due to its strategic position, both commercially and militarily, control of Carchemish was sought by aggressor kingdoms from early times. Pharaoh Thutmose III (of the middle of the second millennium B.C.E.) obtained plunder from it and Ramses III also records an assault on the city. Ashurnasirpal II (of the ninth century B.C.E.) describes his crossing of the Euphrates on rafts buoyed up with inflated goatskins and claims to have received tribute from the king of Carchemish that included 20 talents of silver, 100 talents of copper, 250 talents of iron, plus gold objects, furniture inlaid with ivory, garments of linen and wool, and other booty.

Carchemish figures in the Biblical account at Isaiah 10:9, where Jehovah foretold the Assyrian attack against Israel and Judah. The boastful Assyrian ruler is described as listing Carchemish among the kingdoms that could not withstand his might. This doubtless refers to the Assyrian conquest of the independent kingdom of Carchemish by Sargon II, a contemporary of King Hezekiah. Thereafter Carchemish was ruled by an Assyrian governor.

Then, after the fall of Nineveh, the Assyrian capital, Pharaoh Necho marched through Canaan en route to Carchemish to block the victorious Babylonians from driving W of the Euphrates into Syria and Canaan. King Josiah of Judah unwisely tried to turn the Egyptian forces back at Megiddo and was killed in the attempt (c. 629 B.C.E.). (2 Chron. 35:20-24) About four years later, in 625 B.C.E., a decisive battle was fought at Carchemish between the Egyptian and Babylonian armies. Nebuchadnezzar led the Babylonians to a smashing victory over Pharaoh Necho’s forces and swept over Syria and Canaan. This battle marked the end of Egyptian imperial strength in these regions. The Bible account at Jeremiah 46:2 is paralleled by that of the Babylonian Chronicles (B.M. 21946), both describing the defeat of the Egyptian army.

Excavations have been made at the site of Carchemish at Jerablus on the border of Turkey and Syria, about 63 miles (101.4 kilometers) NE of Aleppo. A large number of documents in the language presently called “Hittite” were found, and it is believed that Carchemish was dominated by the “Empire of Hattusha” for about two centuries during the latter part of the second millennium B.C.E. (See, however, HITTITES.) Also found were reliefs bearing, among other things, the image of a sphinx, as well as the “crux ansata” symbol or ʽankh, indicating strong Egyptian influence.

CARIAN BODYGUARD

(Caʹri·an).

A body of troops that aided Jehoiada in the overthrow of Athaliah and the installation of Jehoash as king of Judah.—2 Ki. 11:4, 13-16, 19.

Many scholars consider the “Carian bodyguard” to be another name for the “Cherethites” (Heb., k^ere·thimʹ), mentioned as serving in the military forces of David and Solomon. In the view of some scholars the Cherethites also functioned as a special bodyguard for these kings. (2 Sam. 8:18; 1 Ki. 1:38; 1 Chron. 18:17) This connection of the Carian bodyguard with the Cherethites is additionally based on the fact that the Masoretic text says “Cherethites” at 2 Samuel 20:23 while its marginal reading has “Carian.”

There is an ancient district of Caria in the SW part of Asia Minor. Certain authorities conjecture that the Philistines migrated to Canaan from that district via the island of Crete. (Amos 9:7) Because Ezekiel 25:16 and Zephaniah 2:5 associate the Cherethites with the Philistines, and because the Septuagint rendering of these texts has “Cretans” instead of Cherethites, some believe that this district of Caria was the original homeland of those in the Carian bodyguard.

While this association of the Carian bodyguard with the Cherethites and with the district of Caria possibly has some basis, a number of lexicographers prefer to treat the Hebrew word as simply meaning “foreigners.”

CARKAS

(Carʹkas).

One of King Ahasuerus’ seven court officials by whom he sent the unheeded demand for Vashti’s presence.—Esther 1:10-12; see COURT OFFICIAL.

CARMEL

(Carʹmel) [orchard or fruitful land].

The name of both a mountain range and a city. The Hebrew word (kar·melʹ), however, is also used to refer to “new grain” (2 Ki. 4:42) or, more frequently, to any fruitful field or orchard.—Isa. 16:10; 32:15; Jer. 2:7.

1. The Carmel range is a wedge-shaped spur of the central mountain range of Canaan, running out therefrom in a N-NW direction with its NW headland coming to within two hundred yards (182.9 meters) of the Mediterranean Sea. The entire range measures some thirty miles (48.3 kilometers) in length, stretching from the Mediterranean down to the Plain of Dothan, beyond which lie the hills of Samaria. The range has three distinct sections, the ridges of the NW and SE being separated by a lower rocky basin or plateau in the center. The NW section has the highest point, some 1,791 feet (546 meters) above sea level. It is not certain whether the name Carmel in Bible times applied to the entire range or only to the NW ridge, which is about 13 miles (20.9 kilometers) long. In modern times the name “Mount Carmel” (Jebel el-Karmal) is assigned to this latter part. Jokneam, a royal Canaanite city, lay at the SE end of this upper section and it is spoken of as “in Carmel.” Megiddo and Taanach, on the E slopes of the SE section, are not so designated.—Josh. 12:22.

The land of Canaan (Palestine) may be divided geographically into three basic sections, each running the length of the land from N to S: the Jordan valley, the hill country, and the coastal plain. The Carmel range, however, makes a definite break in this general pattern. Interrupting the continuity of the N-S mountain ranges, it produces the well-known Valley of Jezreel or Esdraelon, which flanks the SE side of the Carmel range. Similarly, the headland or promontory of Carmel, jutting into the Mediterranean coastal plain, divides it into the Plain of Asher (N of Carmel) and the Plains of Sharon and Philistia (S of Carmel). Immediately N of the Carmel headland, the coastline cuts back sharply to form the Bay of Acco, where modern Haifa now constitutes a major seaport.

Carmel formed a natural roadblock to caravans and armies passing through Canaan on their way to or from either Mesopotamia or Egypt. Not only do the eastern slopes (facing the Plain of Asher and the Valley of Jezreel) rise very steeply, but, from ancient times, the Carmel range has been covered by a thick growth of trees and shrubs making passage difficult. There is a narrow strip of land between the foot of the Carmel headland and the sea, but to take this route meant a considerable detour and also placed advancing armies in a vulnerable position. There were mountain passes leading from the Valley of Jezreel across the range by the fortress cities of Jokneam and Taanach, but the pass at Megiddo, between these two, was much easier to traverse and so more vital. Another principal route, however, ran S from the crossroads town of Megiddo, skirted the remainder of the Carmel range, and then swung W over to the coast via the Plain of Dothan.

Carmel fully merited its name for fruitfulness in ancient times and hence is often associated with other notably fertile regions such as Lebanon, Sharon and Bashan. (Isa. 35:2; Jer. 50:19) King Uzziah, a “lover of agriculture,” had farmers and vinedressers in Carmel (2 Chron. 26:10), and the remains of numerous rock-hewn wine and olive presses are found there. The prophets symbolized the disastrous effects of Jehovah’s adverse judgment against Israel by the withering up of Carmel’s abundant vegetation. (Isa. 33:9; Amos 1:2; Nah. 1:4) Its slopes, washed by the sea winds, still contain fruit orchards, olive groves and vines, and in the spring are carpeted with a magnificent display of flowers. The Shulammite maiden’s king in the Song of Solomon (7:5) likened her head to Carmel, the simile referring either to the luxuriance of her hair or to the way in which her shapely head rose majestically upon her neck. The majestic appearance of Carmel, particularly the headland that sweeps dramatically upward from the coast, even as Mount Tabor rises impressively in the Valley of Jezreel, was also used to represent the imposing figure of Nebuchadnezzar advancing to the conquest of Egypt.—Jer. 46:18.

Carmel was evidently one of the principal places to which people of Samaria fled when seeking refuge. Though by no means the highest of the ranges, its sparse population, its dense forest cover, and also the numerous caves in the soft limestone of its rocky slopes, served to hide the refugees. Yet, the prophet Amos showed that such refuge would prove futile to those fleeing from Jehovah’s righteous judgment.—Amos 9:3.

Carmel formed one of the boundary markers in the territory of the tribe of Asher. (Josh. 19:24-26) Historically, it figures primarily in the activities of the prophets Elijah and Elisha. It was to Mount Carmel that Elijah had King Ahab assemble the people to witness the test between Baal, represented by the 450 prophets of Baal, and the true God Jehovah, represented by Elijah. (1 Ki. 18:19-39) After the test, Elijah had the false prophets brought down to the torrent valley of Kishon, which courses along the eastern foot of Carmel before ending in the Bay of Acco, and there slaughtered them. (Vs. 40) From the summit of Carmel, Elijah prayed for the end of the three-and-a-half-year drought and from there his attendant saw the small cloud that was the precursor of the mighty rainstorm that followed. (Vss. 42-45; Jas. 5:17) From here Elijah ran perhaps as much as twenty miles (32.2 kilometers) to Jezreel, by Jehovah’s help outpacing Ahab’s chariot all the way.—1 Ki. 18:46.

Elijah’s successor, Elisha, after their separation at the Jordan River, traveled to Carmel from Jericho via Bethel. (2 Ki. 2:15, 23, 25) Elisha was again at Mount Carmel when the woman of Shunem (a short distance N of Jezreel) came seeking his help for her dead child.—2 Ki. 4:8, 20, 25.

2. A city in the mountainous region of Judah (Josh. 15:1, 48, 55), identified by most geographers with el-Kirmil some seven and a half miles (12.1 kilometers) S-SE of Hebron.

King Saul erected a “monument [Hebrew, yadh]” at Carmel apparently commemorating his victory over the Amalekites. (1 Sam. 15:12) Although the Hebrew word yadh appearing in this text is usually translated “hand,” it can also refer to a “monument” or standing memorial, as is shown by the use of the accompanying verb phrase “was erecting” in connection with Saul’s act and by the fact that years later “Absalom’s Monument” or yadh is specifically called a “pillar.”—2 Sam. 18:18.

At the time David was a fugitive from murderous Saul, “Nabal the Carmelite” (though apparently a resident of nearby Maon) grazed his large flocks in Carmel’s rolling mountainous pastoral regions. (1 Sam. 25:2; 30:5; 2 Sam. 2:2; 3:3) When Nabal refused to repay David’s protective forces with deserved provisions, the initiative and tact of Nabal’s wife, “Abigail the Carmelitess,” served to restrain David from possible bloodguilt. (1 Sam. 25:2-35) Abigail later became David’s wife.—1 Sam. 25:36-42; 27:3; 1 Chron. 3:1.

“Hezro the Carmelite” was among the mighty men of David’s military forces.—2 Sam. 23:8, 35; 1 Chron. 11:26, 37.

CARMELITE

See CARMEL No. 2.

CARMI

(Carʹmi) [vinedresser].

1. A son of Reuben and the brother of Hanoch, Pallu and Hezron; forefather of the Carmites. Carmi, with the rest of Jacob’s household, came to Egypt in 1728 B.C.E.—Gen. 46:9; Ex. 6:14; Num. 26:6; 1 Chron. 5:3.

2. Father of Achan; a descendant of Judah and Tamar through Zerah and Zabdi. (Josh. 7:1, 18) The designation “sons of Judah” at 1 Chronicles 4:1, where Carmi is listed, evidently is to be understood as including later descendants.—Compare 1 Chronicles 2:4-7.

CARMITES

(Carʹmites).

A family descended from Carmi, a son of Reuben.—Num. 26:5, 6.

CAROB POD

[Gr., ke·raʹti·on].

In the illustration of the prodigal son, Jesus describes the starving lad as desiring to eat the carob pods that were fed