of flame and smoke also highly recommended it for cooking. (John 21:9) For smelting and refining metals, charcoal was indispensable; without it, to reach and sustain the great temperatures required to reduce the ores to basic metals was hardly possible. (Isa. 44:12; 54:16; see REFINE, REFINER.) Much the same as is done today in charging an iron blast furnace, the ore was sandwiched in between layers of charcoal. This practice probably gave rise to the proverb: kindness toward an enemy is like coals of fire upon his head; it softens his anger and brings out the good in him. (Prov. 25:22; Rom. 12:20) The glow of slow-burning charcoal was used by the “wise woman” of Tekoa as an illustration of living posterity.—2 Sam. 14:1-7.

However, the Hebrew words ga·hheʹleth and pe·hhamʹ are not always rendered “charcoal,” for oftentimes they simply mean “coals” or burning embers. Wood was used as fuel for the tabernacle altar (Lev. 1:7, 8; 3:5), and on the day of atonement “burning coals of fire from off the altar” made the incense overspread the ark of the covenant like a cloud. (Lev. 16:12, 13) Isaiah described the idolater that makes a god out of part of the same tree with which he builds a fire, the coals of which bake his bread.—Isa. 44:14, 15, 19.

In a number of Scripture passages “coals” are used in a somewhat figurative or illustrative sense, indicating any kind of glowing hot burning substance. (2 Sam. 22:9; Job 41:21; Ps. 18:8, 12, 13; 140:10; Isa. 6:6; Ezek. 1:13; 10:2; 24:11) The hot “burning coals of the broom trees” were used to represent the retribution upon one with a “tricky tongue.”—Ps. 120:2-4.

CHARIOT

A two-wheeled horse-drawn vehicle, developed primarily for the battlefield rather than for troop movement behind the lines. It provided fast transport in combat, gave soldiers a mobile firing platform, and furnished them with psychological shock power when charging into ranks of foot soldiers. Chariots with many variations of design are widely illustrated on ancient monuments, attesting to both their antiquity and widespread use.

Basically, the chariot usually consisted of a semicircular platform mounted on a single axle, with sides thigh-high and curved around the front; the open back of the car provided quick and easy entrance. The chariot car had a tongue and yoke harnessed to speedy horses. A floor of rope network gave better footing than a smooth wooden surface. Often chariots were outfitted with auxiliary equipment consisting of quiver and bow cases, shields and spears. An added menace to foot soldiers were the iron scythes that sometimes extended from the hubs of the wheels. (Josh. 17:16, 18; Judg. 1:19) When there was only one charioteer, the reins were held around his waist or hips in battle, leaving his hands free to handle the weapons. Larger and heavier chariots with multiple spans of horses had crews of two, three or four, with a driver and one or two fighters, and perhaps a shield-man.

Speed, maneuverability and stability were prime factors that were improved with continued development. For example, by moving the axle toward the rear, greater maneuverability and stability were achieved. Replacing solid wheels with spoked ones lightened the weight and increased the speed. (1 Ki. 7:33) The six-spoke wheel became the most common, though some wheels were designed with four, eight or more. Using lightweight woods, with only the fittings of leather, bronze or iron, made chariots light enough that one or two men could carry them over rough terrain or small streams.

War chariots were employed by many of the pagan nations who opposed Israel. At the Red Sea in 1513 B.C.E. Pharaoh’s entire army including his six hundred special war chariots, “and all the other chariots of Egypt,” were destroyed by Jehovah. (Ex. 14:6, 7; 15:4, 19; Josh. 24:6) When conquering the Promised Land, the Israelites routed the enemy and burned many of their captured chariots. (Josh. 11:4-9) Jabin the king of Canaan held the Israelites in bondage for twenty years until Jehovah pinned down and destroyed his fleet of 900 chariots equipped with iron scythes and commanded by Sisera, at the Kishon River. (Judg. 4:2, 3, 13, 15, 16; 5:28) During the period of Israel’s kings, at one time or another, the Philistines, Egyptians, Ethiopians, Syrians, Assyrians and Babylonians battled against them with large chariot forces, as many as 30,000 and 32,000 chariots on different occasions. (1 Sam. 13:5; 2 Sam 1:6; 1 Chron. 19:6, 7, 18; 2 Chron. 12:2, 3; 14:9; 16:8; Isa. 37:21, 24) In pronouncements of doom, the prophets sometimes mentioned the chariots in which such nations prided themselves.—Jer. 50:37; 51:21; Mic. 5:10, 15.

The more level places, such as the plains of Philistia and the broad valley of Jezreel, were better suited for chariot warfare than the hilly country. On one occasion the Syrians boasted that their chariots would overcome Israel if the latter could be lured out of the mountains to fight on the flat land, for, as they thought, “[Israel’s] God is a God of mountains.” However, the great defeat suffered by the Syrians proved that Jehovah is also “a God of low plains.”—1 Ki. 20:23-30.

In Israel no sizable national chariot force developed until the time of Solomon. This was due in large measure to God’s warning that the king was not to multiply horses, as if the nation’s security depended on them. This restriction limited the use of chariots, since at that time horses were used to power such vehicles. (Deut. 17:16) However, when Samuel warned of the burden that human kings would inflict on the people, he told them: “Your sons he will take and put them as his in his chariots . . . and some will have to run before his chariots.” (1 Sam. 8:11) Both Absalom and Adonijah, in attempting to usurp the kingship, had chariots made for themselves and put fifty men to run before each chariot. (2 Sam. 15:1; 1 Ki. 1:5) When David defeated the king of Zobah, he preserved a hundred chariot horses.—2 Sam. 8:3, 4; 10:18.

King Solomon, in building up the army of Israel, expanded the number of chariots to 1,400. (1 Ki. 10:26, 29; 2 Chron. 1:14, 17) In addition to Jerusalem, other towns known as “chariot cities” had special facilities for taking care of all this mechanized war equipment.—1 Ki. 9:19, 22; 2 Chron. 8:6, 9; 9:25.

After Solomon’s death, chariots were common in both the northern and southern kingdoms. The northern kingdom had a “chief of half the chariots,” indicating that there were two principal divisions of chariots. (1 Ki. 16:9) Archaeologists believe they have found the remains of large stables at Megiddo, some possibly of Solomon’s time, others suggested to be of Ahab’s reign. King Jehu was recognized by his furious chariot driving. (2 Ki. 9:20) Several kings, of both Judah and Israel, were fatally wounded in their chariots, namely, Ahab, Jehoram, Ahaziah and Josiah.—1 Ki. 22:34-38; 2 Ki. 9:21, 24, 27; 2 Chron. 18:33, 34; 35:23, 24.

The prophet Isaiah declared to rebellious Israel: “Woe to those going down to Egypt for assistance, those who rely on mere horses, and who put their trust in war chariots, because they are numerous, and in steeds, because they are very mighty, but who have not looked to the Holy One of Israel and have not searched for Jehovah himself.”—Isa. 31:1.

Though the chariot was primarily a war implement, and was also useful in the chase of wild animals, there are also instances where it was used for peaceful purposes. Joseph as a food administrator of Egypt rode in a chariot of honor, second only to that of Pharaoh. In his chariot he rode out to meet his father Jacob when he entered Egypt. (Gen. 41:43; 46:29) Upon Jacob’s death many chariots were in the funeral procession that went from Egypt to Machpelah, the burial place that Abraham had purchased. (Gen. 50:7-14) As a means of transportation, chariots were also employed by Kings Rehoboam and Ahab, Naaman the Syrian army chief and the Ethiopian official who invited the evangelist Philip to ride with him on the road down to Gaza. (1 Ki. 12:18; 18:44, 45; 2 Ki. 5:21, 26; Acts 8:28-31, 38) Richly decorated and shaded chariots carried victorious rulers in processions. Sacred chariots and the horses that drew them were dedicated to sun worship by apostate Judean rulers, and were probably used in ceremonial driving to meet the rising sun. (2 Ki. 23:11) At a later date, chariot races became popular among the Greeks and Romans.

In a figurative and prophetic sense, chariots are symbols of war just like the bow and sword. (Isa. 21:7, 9; Zech. 9:10) “The war chariots of God” are said to be “in tens of thousands, thousands over and over again,” denoting God’s invincible power to destroy his enemies.—Ps. 68:17; 2 Ki. 6:17.

CHARIOT CITIES

Cities of ancient times set apart as places to station chariots, particularly chariots of war. (2 Chron. 1:14; 9:25) Solomon had various of such cities.—1 Ki. 9:17-19; 10:26; 2 Chron. 8:5, 6.

CHARM

The Hebrew word hhen has the meaning of favor, charm or elegance, in form and conduct, and is generally rendered “favor” (Gen. 6:8), though in certain instances is translated “charm.” For example, a prostitute may be “attractive with charm” (Nah. 3:4), but as observed in the Proverbs: “Charm may be false, and prettiness may be vain; but the woman that fears Jehovah is the one that procures praise for herself.” Also, “a woman of charm is the one that takes hold of glory.” (Prov. 31:30; 11:16; see also Proverbs 5:18, 19.) Divine wisdom and understanding can be a real ornamental charm (Prov. 3:21, 22; 4:7-9), as is also true of proper speech. (Ps. 45:2; Prov. 22:11) When the Jews returned from exile in Babylon, Governor Zerubbabel was encouraged to press forward with the temple building, being assured that with the laying of the headstone, “there will be shoutings to it: ‘How charming! How charming!’”—Zech. 4:7.

Additionally, the English word “charm” has an altogether different meaning than noted above. It can also mean a magical formula spoken, sung or written as a spell, or an object kept or worn by a person in the belief that it has occult power either for good or for protection against evil. Such spiritistic practices were among “the detestable things” that Jehovah forbade his people to indulge in. (Deut. 18:9-11; Isa. 3:1-3) The ancient Babylonians, Egyptians and others were notorious for their trust in charms and the casting of spells.—Isa. 19:3; 47:9, 12.

Written charms were also thought to have power to ward off evil spirits, or the evil eye. Magical words and sayings were engraved on amulets (see AMULET) made of lead, gold, precious stones, or even leather, and these “good luck” trinkets were worn on the head, or around the neck, arms and ankles as a protection to the wearer. Sometimes mystic words were put on plaques and hung over the doors of houses. Even to this day, the “mezuzah” on the doorposts at the entrance of Jewish homes is a relic of this ancient pagan custom. M’Clintock & Strong’s Cyclopœdia (Vol. VI, p. 208) says: “Like the Greeks and Romans, who attached amulets to the jambs of the doors, and ascribed to them magic power, the Jews from a very early period believed that the Mezuzah guarded the house against the entrance of diseases and evil spirits, as may be seen from the remarks in the Talmud.” (See MEZUZAH.) In the books “of those who practiced magical arts” at Ephesus, there were probably written some of the spellbinding magical formulas. (Acts 19:19) More recently “lucky bowls” for drinking purposes, inscribed with words from the Koran, have replaced older charm pieces in modern Egypt.

Sometimes amulets or trinkets, even without an inscription, took on the attributes of a charm and were worn for protection against harm. “The most popular of the amulets worn as a protection against the evil eye were of phallic import. Any such amulet was called a fascinum, probably after the Roman lascivious god Fascinus. . . . The ancient Romans, almost without exception, wore in plain view, on their persons, amulets and charms of phallic form. . . . Even children had phallic emblems hung upon their bodies and attached to their dress.”—Phallic Worship, George R. Scott, pp. 107, 109.

It is said that by the time of Christ the rabbis attached magic power to the correct pronunciation of the Tetragrammaton. Hence, common use of the name was suppressed. One of the Talmud fables was to the effect that Jesus’ miracles were made possible because of his knowing the secret pronunciation of the divine name.

SNAKE CHARMING

So-called snake charming is another form of spiritism, and is a survival of the ancient cult of serpent worshipers. The charmer is supposed to cast a spell over the serpent, often a hooded cobra, so it appears enchanted with the playing of music, usually on a flute or pipe instrument. Snakes are not deaf or hard of hearing, as some may think, but as Psalm 58:4, 5 implies, they are able to hear the voice of charmers as well as the music. One might think that it is a mere trick of training the snake as one would train an animal or bird, by placing it in a basket with a lid, playing soft music, quickly dropping the lid if any attempt is made to escape, until the snake finally learns to raise itself upright in obedience to the music without trying to escape. While this may be true in some instances, it appears that snake charming by a devout occultist is more than a simple circus trick. Asked by what power he was able to charm snakes, and whether it was a form of hypnotism, a “skilled charmer” (Isa. 3:3) by the name of Sheik Moussa explained that spiritistic forces were involved, for, as he said:

“By the honour of Islam, I can only say that it is a power which is passed down from master to disciple at initiation. To utter the invocations alone will not be sufficient to conquer the snakes. The talismans, prayers and commands are all necessary and great helps, as is also the secret invocation which is communicated to the disciple for mental use only, but the principal power to charm the snakes comes from this force which is given over to the pupil by his teacher . . . the disciple receives the power over snakes which is invisibly passed into him. It is this force which really enables him to control the snakes.”—A Search in Secret Egypt, Paul Brunton, Sixth printing, 1953, p. 248.

Attesting to the antiquity of this spiritistic practice is its mention in the Bible.—Ps. 58:4, 5; Eccl. 10:11; Jer. 8:17.

CHEBAR

(Cheʹbar) [perhaps, powerful, mighty].

A “river” in the “land of the Chaldeans” near which Jews of the community of Tel-abib were exiled. (Ezek. 1:1-3) In 613 B.C.E. it was the site of the prophet Ezekiel’s first recorded vision, the stunning effects of which lasted seven days, and of his commissioning as “a watchman . . . to the house of Israel.” (Ezek. 1:1–3:21) Similar visions on later occasions reminded the prophet of his experience at Chebar.—Ezek. 10:15, 20, 22; 43:3.

Some commentators have advanced the view that the Chebar may have been the modern Khabur, which enters the Euphrates about 290 miles (466.6 kilometers) N of Babylon. However, it should be noted that the exiles taken by Nebuchadnezzar’s forces were removed to “Babylon” (2 Ki. 24:16;