of her shepherd lover to “cylinders of gold, filled with chrysolite.” (Song of Sol. 5:14) Similarly, Daniel used chrysolite to describe the body of “a certain man clothed in linen” who came to tell the prophet what would befall his people “in the final part of the days.” (Dan. 10:5, 6, 14) In his vision of New Jerusalem, the apostle John observed that the seventh foundation of the city’s wall was chrysolite and engraved upon it was the name of one of the “twelve apostles of the Lamb.”—Rev. 21:2, 10, 14, 20; see JEWELS AND PRECIOUS STONES.

CHRYSOPRASE

(chrysʹo·prase).

A semiprecious, translucent gemstone, an apple-green variety of chalcedony. The color is caused by a trace of nickel oxide in the mineral. Superstitious persons once believed that the stone possessed power to cure eye diseases.

The only Biblical reference to chrysoprase is in Revelation, where it is mentioned as constituting the tenth foundation of the wall of “the holy city, New Jerusalem.”—Rev. 21:2, 20.

CHUB

An unidentified people included among those allied with Egypt. Chub is listed with Ethiopia, Put, Lud and “the sons of the land of the covenant” (who may refer to Israelites who fled to Egypt after the murder of Gedaliah in 607 B.C.E.), all of whom are destined to “fall by the very sword.” (Ezek. 30:4, 5) Some commentators think that Chub refers to Libya, and it is so rendered by some translations.—LXX; RS.

CHUZA

(Chuʹza) [little jug].

Herod Antipas’ “man in charge,” possibly of the domestic affairs. Chuza’s wife Joanna ministered to Jesus.—Luke 8:3; see JOANNA.

CILICIA

(Ci·liʹcia).

A relatively small and narrow region of SE Asia Minor. On the S lay the Mediterranean Sea, to the W was Pamphylia, on the N the Taurus mountain range separated it from Lycaonia and Cappadocia, and to the E the Amanus mountain range (which forms a southern branch of the Taurus) divided it off from Syria. These, at least, were its boundaries during much of its ancient history. Its name is believed to come from the Assyrian Hilakku, found in inscriptions of the ninth century B.C.E.

Basically the region was divided into two natural sections: the western, called Cilicia Tracheia (Cilicia the Rugged) and the eastern, called Cilicia Pedias (Plain Cilicia). Cilicia Tracheia was a wild plateau region of the Taurus Mountains, rich in forest land. Its rugged seacoast, broken by rocky headlands, provided numerous sheltered harbors and inlets. From early times it was a haven for robbers and for pirates, who preyed on the coastal shipping. Cilicia Pedias embraced the broad coastal plain, a well-watered, extremely fertile section. In Roman times this plain was dotted with some sixteen semiautonomous cities, the most prominent of which was Tarsus, the birthplace of Saul (Paul).—Acts 21:39; 22:3; 23:34.

In addition to such products as wheat, flax and fruits, a principal product of Cilicia was its famous goats’ hair, known as cilicium in Roman times. Its use in the manufacture of tents may partly account for Paul’s early experience as a tentmaker.

Cilicia occupied a strategic position, both militarily and commercially. The principal trade route from Syria passed through the Syro-Cilician Gates, a high pass through the Amanus range about twenty miles (32.2 kilometers) N of Antioch, then traversed Cilicia to Tarsus and ascended the Taurus Mountains to the Cilician Gates, the sharp defiles or clefts that give access into central and western Asia Minor. These narrow passes provided easily defensible borders. Yet military forces of many nations marched over this route. Assyria and Persia successively dominated Cilicia, and in 333 B.C.E. Macedonian Alexander’s forces passed through the Cilician Gates and defeated the Persian army at the battle of Issus.

Under the Romans, Cilicia did not become an organized province until 67 B.C.E., when Pompey subdued the pirates of western Cilicia. In 27 B.C.E. the province was divided, part of the western portion being included with Cappadocia and part being turned over to the rule of local dynasties, while the eastern part was combined with Syria and Phoenicia as one province. It was not until the time of Vespasian (72 C.E.) that the eastern and western sections of Cilicia were reunited in a single province. So, during the early part of apostolic times there was an especially close relationship between Cilicia and Syria, and this seems to be reflected at Acts 15:23, 41 and Galatians 1:21, some authorities suggesting that “Cilicia” in these texts refers to Cilicia Pedias. On the other hand, when Acts 27:5 says that Paul sailed “through the open sea along Cilicia and Pamphylia” on his way to be tried in Rome, “Cilicia” there apparently includes the entire region of eastern and western Cilicia.

Jews from Cilicia were among those disputing with Stephen prior to his death. (Acts 6:9) By about 49 C.E. there were already congregations in Cilicia to whom the Christian council in Jerusalem sent a letter. (Acts 15:23) The route for Paul’s second and third missionary tours would naturally take him through Cilicia and the Cilician Gates.

CINNAMON

[Heb., qin·na·mohnʹ, Gr., kin·naʹmo·mon].

The cinnamon tree is part of the laurel family, to which both the cassia and the camphor trees belong. It grows best in light, sandy, moist soil, and is abundant in Ceylon and Java. The Hebrew name is possibly of foreign origin, and the product seems to have been an import into Palestine.

The cinnamon grows to a maximum height of about thirty feet (9.1 meters), has a smooth ash-colored bark and wide-spreading branches. The lancehead-shaped evergreen leaves are green on top but white on the bottom and measure about eight or nine inches (20.3 to 22.8 centimeters) in length and about two inches (5 centimeters) in width. The flowers are small, white or yellowish and grow in clusters. The white or grayish outer bark is almost odorless and of little value. The commercial cinnamon is obtained from the darker inner bark. This is done by first making two lengthwise incisions on each side of a branch with a sharp knife. The cylinder of bark or “quill” is then removed and tied in bundles of about a pound (453 grams) and marketed. Golden-yellow cinnamon oil is obtained by soaking small pieces of bark in seawater and then distilling this solution. It has a very agreeable, aromatic odor and is used as a perfume.

Cinnamon was used in the preparation of the holy anointing oil as one of the “choicest perfumes.” (Ex. 30:23) It was sprinkled on beds (Prov. 7:17), was figuratively used in describing the beloved Shulammite girl (Song of Sol. 4:13, 14), and is included among the products the traveling merchants sold to “Babylon the Great” before her destruction.—Rev. 18:11-13.

CIRCUMCISION

Removal of the prepuce or foreskin from the male penis or the clitoris or internal labia of females. Circumcision literally means “cutting around” and is a relatively simple operation when performed on infant boys, but more painful when done to adult men. (Gen. 34:24, 25) Circumcision of females, although practiced among certain pagan societies, sometimes in a most brutal fashion, is not mentioned in the Scriptures.

Jehovah God made circumcision mandatory for Abraham in 1919 B.C.E., a year before Isaac’s birth. God said: “This is my covenant that you men will keep. . . :Every male of yours must get circumcised.” Every male in Abraham’s household of both his descendants and dependents was included, and so Abraham, his thirteen-year-old son Ishmael, and all his slaves took upon themselves this “sign of the covenant.” New slaves brought in also had to be circumcised. From then on, any male of the household, slave or free, was to be circumcised the eighth day after birth. Disregard for this divine requirement was punishable by death.—Gen. 17:1, 9-14, 23-27.

Circumcision was practiced in Egypt, as illustrated in wall paintings and observed in mummies, but when it was first introduced in that country, and to what extent it was performed, is uncertain. Some say that Joseph as food administrator introduced it to Egypt. Others cite Herodotus as authority for their claim that Abraham simply borrowed the custom from the Egyptians. Answering these latter claims, W. M. Thomson says: “As to the testimony of Herodotus, who came into Egypt fifteen centuries after, and, with great learning and research, often writes a good deal of nonsense, I refuse utterly to put it in the same category with that of Moses. The great founder of the Jewish commonwealth—the greatest lawgiver on record—born and bred in Egypt, states the facts in relation to the introduction of circumcision among his people. A mere traveller and historian—a foreigner and a Greek—comes along very much later, and makes statements which are partly true, partly erroneous, as Josephus shows in his answer to Apion; and then sceptical authors, more than twenty centuries later than Herodotus, bring up his imperfect statements, and, twisting and expanding them, attempt to prove that Abraham did not receive circumcision from God (as Moses plainly says he did), but from the Egyptians! Not with such weapons can the veracity of Moses be successfully assailed.”—The Land and the Book, pp. 590, 591.

The Assyrians, Babylonians, Greeks and notably the Philistines did not practice circumcision. The latter in particular, rather than the Canaanites in general, are derogatorily spoken of as “the uncircumcised,” and it was from fighting with them that trophies of foreskins were brought.—Judg. 14:3; 15:18; 1 Sam. 14:6; 17:26; 18:25-27; 2 Sam. 1:20; 1 Chron. 10:4.

Abraham’s descendants through Isaac and Jacob faithfully kept the covenant of circumcision. “Abraham proceeded to circumcise Isaac his son when eight days old, just as God had commanded him.” (Gen. 21:4) The great-grandsons of Abraham told Shechem and his fellow townsmen: “We cannot possibly . . . give our sister [Dinah] to a man who has a foreskin . . . Only on this condition can we give consent to you, that you become like us, by every male of yours getting circumcised.” (Gen. 34:13-24) When Moses neglected to circumcise his son, he incurred God’s wrath until his wife Zipporah did it for him.—Ex. 4:24-26.

PERFORMED ON THE EIGHTH DAY

Circumcision was made a mandatory requirement of the Mosaic law. “On the eighth day [after the birth of a male] the flesh of his foreskin will be circumcised.” (Lev. 12:2, 3) So important was it that, if the eighth day fell on the highly regarded sabbath, circumcision was to be performed anyway. (John 7:22, 23) Examples of parents under this Law who faithfully had their children circumcised on the eighth day include the parents of John the Baptist, Jesus and Paul. (Luke 1:59; 2:21; Phil. 3:4, 5) The Law also required aliens to be circumcised before they were allowed to eat the passover.—Ex. 12:43-48.

Why was the eighth day specified for circumcision? Jehovah did not explain, nor was it necessary that he do so. His ways are always right; his reasons the best. (2 Sam. 22:31) However, in recent years man has learned some of the physical reasons why the eighth day was a good time to circumcise. Normal amounts of the blood-clotting element called “vitamin K” are not found in the blood until the fifth to the seventh day after birth. Another clotting factor known as prothrombin is present in amounts only about 30 percent of normal on the third day, but on the eighth day is higher than at any other time in the child’s life—as much as 110 percent of normal. So, following Jehovah’s instructions would help to avoid the danger of hemorrhage. As Dr. S. I. McMillen observes: “From a consideration of vitamin K and prothrombin determinations the perfect day to perform a circumcision is the eighth day . . . [the] day picked by the Creator of vitamin K.”—None of These Diseases, 1963, pp. 22, 23.

Circumcision was usually, though not always, performed by the head of the house. In later times an official designated and trained for this operation was used. By the first century it appears to have become the custom to name the boy when he was circumcised.—Luke 1:59, 60; 2:21.

During the forty-year wilderness wandering, circumcision of the baby boys was not performed. So after crossing the Jordan, Joshua had all those males circumcised with flint knives at Gilgal, and Jehovah protected them until they recuperated.—Josh. 5:2-9.

AFTER THE EXILE

Two centuries after the Jews returned from Babylon, Greek influence began to dominate the Near East, and many peoples abandoned circumcision. But when Syrian King Antiochus IV Epiphanes proscribed circumcision, he found Jewish mothers willing to die rather than deny their sons the “sign of the covenant.” (Gen. 17:11) Years later Roman Emperor Hadrian got the same results when forbidding the Jews to circumcise their boys. Some Jewish athletes, however, who thought more of participating naked in the Hellenistic games than remaining faithful to Jehovah endeavored to become “uncircumcised” by an operation aimed at restoring some semblance of a foreskin and thus avoid scorn and ridicule. Paul may have alluded to such a practice when he counseled Christians: “Was any man called circumcised? Let him not become uncircumcised.”—1 Cor. 7:18.

NOT REQUIRED OF CHRISTIANS

After Jehovah had shown his acceptance of Gentiles into the Christian congregation, and since many from the nations were responding to the preaching of the good news, a decision had to be made by the governing body at Jerusalem on the question, Is it necessary for Gentile Christians to get circumcised in the flesh? The conclusion of the matter: The “necessary things” for Gentiles and Jews alike did not include circumcision.—Acts 15:6-29.

Paul circumcised Timothy shortly after the decree was issued, not as a matter of faith, but to avoid prejudicing Jews to whom they were going to preach. (Acts 16:1-3; 1 Cor. 9:20) The apostle dealt with the subject in several letters. (Rom. 2:25-29; Gal. 2:11-14; 5:2-6; 6:12-15; Col. 2:11; 3:11) “We are those with the real circumcision [of the heart], who are rendering sacred service by God’s spirit,” Paul wrote Gentile Christians at Philippi. (Phil. 3:3) And to those in Corinth this same apostle wrote: “Circumcision does not mean a thing, and uncircumcision means not a thing, but observance of God’s commandments does.”—1 Cor. 7:19.

In a symbolic sense “circumcision” is used as a figure of speech in a number of ways. After planting a tree in the Promised Land, for example, “for three years it will continue uncircumcised for you”; its fruit was considered its “foreskin” and not to be eaten. (Lev. 19:23) Moses said to Jehovah: “Look! I am uncircumcised in lips, so how will Pharaoh ever listen to me?” (Ex. 6:12, 30) In a figurative way “uncircumcised ones” describes with repulsive contempt those worthy only of burial in a common place with slain ones of the lowest sort.—Ezek. 32:18-32.

Circumcision of the heart was a divine requirement of even the Israelites who were already circumcised in the flesh, Moses told Israel: “You must circumcise the foreskin of your hearts and not harden your