a memorial (sepulchre as a monument).” Related to mne·meiʹon is the word mneʹma, which appears to have a corresponding meaning, referring, also to “a memorial or record of a thing or a dead person, then a sepulchral monument, and hence a tomb.”—An Expository Dictionary of New Testament Words, Vol. II, by W. E. Vine, pp. 172, 173.

Such tomb might be an excavated grave in the ground or, as was often the case among the Hebrews, might be a natural cave or a rock-cut vault. (Compare Acts 7:16 and Genesis 23:19, 20.) As has been seen above, whereas the word taʹphos or “grave” gives emphasis to the idea of burial, the words mneʹma and mne·meiʹon lay stress on the thought of preserving the memory of the deceased person. These latter words, therefore, appear to carry a greater idea of permanence than taʹphos; they are related to the Latin word monimentum.

It seems evident that Jewish burial tombs were customarily built outside the cities, a major exception being those of the kings. The references to such tombs in the Christian Greek Scriptures would all appear to place them outside the cities, except the reference to David’s tomb at Acts 2:29. Being thus withdrawn and also being avoided by the Jews, due to the ceremonial uncleanness connected with them, the areas in which such tombs were located were at times the haunt of crazed or demonized persons.—Matt. 8:28; Mark 5:5.

NOT ORNATE

While serving as a remembrance of the deceased person, the Jewish memorial tombs in general do not appear to have been ornate or ostentatious. Some were so unpretentious and inconspicuous that men might walk upon them without being aware of it. (Luke 11:44) Although it was the custom of the pagan peoples around them to make their tombs as lavish as their circumstances allowed, the early Jewish tombs that have been found are notable for their simplicity. This was due mainly to their worship being based on the Hebrew Scriptures and which allowed no veneration of the dead nor fostered any ideas of a conscious existence after death in a spirit world, ideas such as those held by the Egyptians, Canaanites, Babylonians and others. Thus, while many critics make the claim that the worship of the nation of Israel was, from early times, “syncretistic,” that is, resulting from the union of conflicting beliefs and having developed by the addition of tenets and practices from earlier religions, the fundamental resistance to such religious corruption is evidenced once again in the plainness of these tombs. Apostasy, of course, did occur among the Israelites and would account for any deviations from the usual attitude toward the dead. Likewise, Jesus shows that in his day it was the practice of the scribes and Pharisees to decorate the memorial tombs of the prophets and others. (Matt. 23:29, 30) Under Greek and Roman influence, the tendency among the wealthy at this time was toward more pretentious tombs.

Aside from the tomb of John the Baptist (Mark 6:29), the principal tombs considered in the Greek Scriptures are those of Lazarus and of Jesus. Lazarus’ tomb was typically Jewish, being a cave with a stone lying against the opening, which opening may have been relatively small, as has been true of similar tombs found in Palestine. The context would indicate it was outside the village.—John 11:30-34, 38-44.

JESUS’ TOMB

The tomb used for Jesus’ burial was a new one belonging to Joseph of Arimathea, and was not a cave but had been carved in a rock of a garden not far from the site of Jesus’ impalement. The tomb had a door requiring a big stone to close it and this stone apparently was of the circular type sometimes used. (Matt. 27:57-60; Mark 16:3, 4; John 19:41, 42) Like other tombs found, it seems to have had within a benchlike shelf or shelves cut into the walls on which bodies could be placed.—Compare Mark 16:5.

Claims are made for two principal sites as being the original location of Jesus’ tomb. One is the traditional site over which the Church of the Holy Sepulchre has been erected. The other site is that known as the Garden Tomb, which is cut out of a huge stone protruding from the side of a hill and is outside even the present city walls. Inside it gives evidence of being a “new” tomb, since, of the several places for bodies, only one seems to have been completed. No definite proof exists, however, that either of these places authentically represents the memorial tomb in which Jesus was laid.

‘TOMBS OPENED’ AT JESUS’ DEATH

The text at Matthew 27:52, 53 concerning the “memorial tombs [that] were opened” as the result of an earthquake occurring at the time of Jesus’ death has caused considerable discussion, some holding that a resurrection occurred. However, a comparison with the texts concerning the resurrection makes clear that these verses do not describe a resurrection but merely a throwing of bodies out of their tombs, similar to incidents that have taken place in recent times, as in Ecuador in 1949, and again in Bogotá, Colombia, in 1962, when two hundred corpses in the cemetery were thrown out of their tombs by a violent earth tremor.—El Tiempo, Bogotá, Colombia, July 31, 1962.

The translation by Johannes Greber (1937) of these verses reads as follows: “Tombs were laid open, and many bodies of those buried were tossed upright. In this posture they projected from the graves and were seen by many who passed by the place on their way back to the city.”

REMEMBRANCE BY GOD

In view of the thought of remembrance underlying the word mne·meiʹon, Jesus’ use of this word (rather than taʹphos) at John 5:28 with regard to the resurrection of “all those in the memorial tombs” seems particularly appropriate and contrasts sharply with the thought of complete repudiation and effacement from all memory represented by Gehenna. (Matt. 10:28; 23:33; Mark 9:43) The importance attached to burial by the Hebrews (see BURIAL, BURIAL PLACES) is indicative of their concern that they be remembered, primarily by Jehovah God in whom they had faith as “the rewarder of those earnestly seeking him.” (Heb. 11:1, 2, 6) Inscriptions of the tombs of Israelite origin are very rare and, when found, usually consist of only the name. The outstanding kings of Judah left no magnificent monuments with their praises and exploits engraved thereon, as did the kings of other nations. Thus it seems evident that the concern of faithful men of ancient times was that their name be in the “book of remembrance” described at Malachi 3:16 and not be as the “name of the wicked ones [which] will rot.”—Prov. 10:7; compare Ecclesiastes 7:1; see NAME.

The basic idea of remembrance involved in the original Greek words for “tomb” or “memorial tomb” also gives added meaning to the plea of the thief impaled alongside Jesus to “remember me when you get into your kingdom.”—Luke 23:42.

MEMPHIS

(Memʹphis).

One of the capitals of ancient Egypt, identified with the ruins near Mit Rahiney, about fourteen miles (22.5 kilometers) S of Cairo, on the W side of the Nile River. Memphis was for long the most important city in “Lower Egypt” (that is, the Delta region and a small section to the S thereof).

At Hosea 9:6 the city is called Moph in the Hebrew text (rendered “Memphis” in most English translations). Elsewhere it is referred to by the Hebrew Noph. (Isa. 19:13; Jer. 2:16; 44:1; 46:14, 19; Ezek. 30:13, 16) This Hebrew name is believed to come from Egyptian Mn-nfr (the vowels not being written), the name applied to the pyramid of Pepi I (of the so-called “Sixth Dynasty”), located near Memphis. The Hebrew Noph may have come from the last part of this name (nfr). In late Egyptian, Mn-nfr became Menfi or Membi, which in Greek became Memphis.

The city also had a sacred name, Egyptian H(w)t-k;-Pth, meaning “the house of the Ka of [the god] Ptah.” In the Aramaic tablets found at Tell el-Amarna in Upper Egypt this name was written Hi-ku-up-tah. This may be the forerunner of the Greek name Aiʹgy-ptos, from which is drawn the English name “Egypt.” This would mean that the country became known by the name of its long-time principal city.

HISTORY

According to legend, recounted by Greek historian Herodotus, Memphis was established by a ruler named Menes; no historical evidence has been found, however, for this supposed founder of the “First Dynasty” of Egyptian rulers. Memphis’ geographical situation was ideally suited for a capital city of this land of the Nile. Lying just a little S of the apex of the Delta (that is, the point where the Nile River divides up into its branches), it could exercise control not only over the Delta region to the N but also over the traffic on the Nile. Desert and mountains made difficult any approach to the city from the W, and the Nile itself and the hills beyond served as a protection from the E. Thus, Memphis, on the border between “Upper” (Southern) and “Lower” (Northern) Egypt, anciently held the key to all Egypt, much as modern Cairo does today in a nearby location.

Commercial center

The city was a great commercial center throughout its history, declining only after the Greek conquest when Alexandria on the northern coast became the country’s most thriving port. According to some historians, Memphis became widely reputed for its glass manufacture, Rome being a principal importer of its wares. Acacia trees were also cultivated in the area to supply wood for making furniture, ships for Egypt’s navy and military weapons.

Political

Politically, also, Memphis held great prominence, particularly during the period Egyptologists call the “Old Kingdom” and on down into the “Middle Kingdom.” Most historians believe that the seat of government of the earliest dynasties was at Memphis, though perhaps moving to Thebes (Biblical No-amon, over 300 miles [c. 483 kilometers] farther S) for a time. It seems likely that the capital was still at Memphis when Abraham visited Egypt and had his experience with the ruling Pharaoh. (Gen. 12:1-20) The Encyclopædia Britannica (1959 ed., Vol. 15, p. 235) states that “Memphis remained the centre of the government and the largest city in Egypt until the New Empire (18th to 20th dynasties), when Amen worship replaced that of Ptah and Thebes took the lead.” Others hold that even during that period Memphis “shared supremacy with Thebes.”—The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, Vol. III, p. 2031.

At any rate, the Biblical evidence seems to indicate that during the Israelites’ sojourn in Egypt the Egyptian capital was in Lower (Northern) Egypt within reasonably easy access of the land of Goshen, where the Israelites were dwelling. (Gen. 47:1, 2; see GOSHEN No. 1.) Moses’ meeting Pharaoh ‘by the Nile River’ would appear to favor the capital’s being at Memphis rather than down in the Delta region (as some suggest), for the Nile split into several branches upon reaching the Delta.—Ex. 7:15.

Because of its prominence, Memphis figures in several prophecies involving Egypt. At Jeremiah 2:16, the prophet spoke of Noph (Memphis) and Tahpanes (a city in the Delta region) as “feeding on [Israel] at the crown of the head,” that is, stripping Israel and making it as if bald. This meant a humiliation for God’s professed people, accompanied by mourning. (Compare 2 Kings 2:23; Isaiah 22:12.) In the case of both the northern and southern kingdoms (Israel and Judah), Egypt, as here represented by Memphis and Tahpanes, proved to be a futile source of hoped-for aid and support, while at the same time showing itself ready to exploit God’s covenant people for selfish advantage.—Hos. 7:11; Isa. 30:1-3; 2 Ki. 23:31-35.

Religious

Memphis was a center of religion and of learning in Egypt, but back in the eighth century B.C.E., Isaiah foretold that the vaunted wisdom of the princes (perhaps priestly princes) of Noph (Memphis) would fail and Egypt would be misled. (Isa. 19:13) Such counselors evidently fostered a false sense of security in Egypt as regards the aggressive power of Assyria.

Memorials of Ethiopian King Tirhakah’s reign over Egypt have been found at Memphis. Though Tirhakah managed to survive his encounter with Assyrian King Sennacherib in Canaan (732 B.C.E.; 2 Ki. 19:9), Sennacherib’s son Esar-haddon later shattered the Egyptian army, forcing them to retreat to Memphis. Esar-haddon’s own record of the subsequent conflict reads: “Memphis, [Tirhakah’s] royal city, in half a day, with mines, tunnels, assaults, I besieged, I captured, I destroyed, I devastated, I burned with fire.” Apparently a few years later Egypt’s forces retook Memphis, massacring the Assyrian garrison. But Ashurbanipal, son of Esar-haddon, marched into Egypt and drove the rulers out of Memphis and back up the Nile (southward).

When Assyria went into decline in the latter part of the seventh century, Memphis came back under full Egyptian control. Following Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar’s desolation of Judah in 607 B.C.E., Jewish refugees fled into Egypt, taking up residence in Memphis and other cities. (Jer. 44:1) Through his prophets Jeremiah and Ezekiel, Jehovah condemned them to disaster and foretold that Nebuchadnezzar would strike Egypt and its Pharaoh Hophra (Apries) a devastating blow, with Memphis (Noph) experiencing the full force of the attack. (Jer. 44:11-14, 29, 30; 46:13, 14, 19; Ezek. 30:10-13) The Babylonian attackers of Memphis would confidently attack the city in broad daylight.—Ezek. 30:16.

Memphis again came in for a severe defeat at the hands of Persian King Cambyses in 525 B.C.E., thereafter becoming the seat of a Persian satrapy. The city never fully recovered from the effects of this conquest. With the rise of Alexandria under the Ptolemies, Memphis declined steadily and by the seventh century of the Common Era had become vast ruins.

Memphis was among the foremost sacred cities of ancient Egypt, along with nearby On (Heliopolis). (Gen. 41:50) Especially important were the shrines dedicated to the god Ptah and to the sacred bull Apis. The god Ptah, according to the “Memphite theology” devised by the priests of Memphis, was the creator (sharing this distinction with other gods such as Thoth, Ra, and Osiris), and his mythological activity apparently was modeled on the actual role of the Pharaoh in human affairs. Classical historians describe the temple of Ptah at Memphis as being periodically enlarged and beautified. Enormous statues adorned it.

The Apis bull, a specially marked live bull, was kept at Memphis and worshiped as the incarnation of the god Osiris, though in certain legends it is also connected with the god Ptah. At its death, public mourning was carried on and an impressive burial of the bull made at nearby Sakkara. (When the tomb there was opened in the last century, investigators found the embalmed bodies of over sixty bulls and cows.) The selection of a new Apis bull and its enthronement at Memphis was an equally elaborate ceremony. This worship may have influenced the rebellious Israelites in their idea of worshiping Jehovah through a golden calf. (Ex. chap. 32) The worship of the foreign goddess Astarte was also prominent at Memphis and there were temples to Egyptian gods and goddesses such as Hathor, Amon, Imhotep, Isis, Osiris-Sokar, Anubis and others. This whole array of ancient deities and their idols was due for destruction by divine judgment.—Ezek. 30:13.

Royal burial sites

Evidence of Memphis’ past importance is seen from the vast burial grounds close by the ancient site, these areas containing some twenty pyramids or royal monumental tombs. The prominence of Memphis as a royal burial site doubtless is reflected in Hosea’s prophecy against faithless Israel in the eighth century B.C.E., to the effect that “Egypt itself will collect them together; Memphis, for its part, will bury them.” (Hos. 9:6) Among the pyramids found at Sakkara, just NW of Memphis, is the Step Pyramid built by King Djoser (“Third Dynasty”), considered to be the oldest free-standing stone structure known. Farther to the W-NW of Memphis are the far more impressive pyramids of Gizeh and the Great Sphinx. Today these tombs and similar stone structures are all that remain to indicate Memphis’ past religious glory. As foretold, the city has become “a mere object of astonishment.”—Jer. 46:19.

MEMUCAN

(Me·muʹcan) [perhaps, Magian].

The chief spokesman for the seven Medo-Persian princes on the occasion that Vashti refused to obey King Ahasuerus. (Esther 1:13-15) Memucan’s opinion was that Vashti had wronged not only the king but also the princes and the people of the empire, and, therefore, she should be removed as queen, so that all wives of the empire might learn to be obedient to their husbands. The king and the other princes agreed with Memucan, and a royal decree to this effect was written among the unchangeable laws of the Medes and Persians.—Esther 1:16-22.

These “seven princes of Persia and Media” were “versed in the law and legal cases.” They were the king’s closest advisers, “sitting first in the kingdom.” (Esther 1:13, 14) That the Persian court had such a council of seven is confirmed by Ezra 7:14.

MENAHEM

(Menʹa·hem) [one who comforts].

Son of Gadi and king of Israel for ten years (c. 791-780 B.C.E.). Upon learning that Shallum had assassinated King Zechariah, Menahem went from Tirzah to Samaria and killed the assassin there. He then assumed rulership. Evidently during the early part of his reign Menahem struck down Tiphsah “and all that was in it and its territory out from Tirzah, because it did not open up.” The town was apparently reluctant to open its gate to him. (LXX, Vg, Sy) Harsh treatment was meted out to the populace: “All its pregnant women he ripped up.”—2 Ki. 15:10, 13-17.

Menahem did what was bad in Jehovah’s eyes. He promoted calf worship, failing to depart from the sins of Jeroboam, the first king of the ten-tribe kingdom. During his reign, King Pul (Tiglath-pileser III) invaded Israel, and Menahem was forced to pay that Assyrian monarch “a thousand talents of silver,” equaling more than $1,423,000. He acquired this sum by imposing an assessment of fifty silver shekels upon each of the “valiant, mighty men” of Israel. Since a talent of silver equaled about three thousand shekels, the silver was obtained from about 60,000 persons. Menahem gave the silver to the Assyrian king, “that his hands might prove to be with him to strengthen the kingdom in his own hand.” Upon receiving this amount, Pul withdrew from the land.—2 Ki. 15:19, 20.

Menahem is named in an inscription of Tiglath-pileser III as “Menahem the Samarian” (Minehimmu Samarina), being listed there, along with Syrian King Rezin (Rasunnu) and King Hiram (Hirumu) of Tyre (different from the Hiram of David’s day), as a ruler from whom that Assyrian monarch claims to have received tribute. Menahem died about 780 B.C.E. and his son Pekahiah succeeded him on Israel’s throne.—2 Ki. 15:22.

Mene

(Meʹne).

The opening word of a cryptic message miraculously inscribed on the plaster wall of King Belshazzar’s banquet hall in Babylon on the night of October 5-6, 539 B.C.E. (Gregorian calendar), just before the city’s fall to the Medes and Persians. According to Daniel, who was empowered by Jehovah to read the inscription and give its interpretation, the writing read: “MENE, MENE, TEKEL and PARSIN.” (Dan. 5:25) The inscription evidently consisted only of consonants and required intelligent and proper vocalization, as well as correct interpretation. The words themselves literally mean: “A mina, a mina, a shekel and half-shekels.”

In giving the accurate interpretation, Daniel said first: “This is the interpretation of the word: MENE, God has numbered the days of your kingdom and has finished it.” (Dan. 5:26) Even that portion of the message should have made things clear to King Belshazzar. Jehovah had dethroned mighty Nebuchadnezzar, who was more powerful than Belshazzar. So He should be able to cut down the number of days of Belshazzar’s kingship and those of his coregent and father, Nabonidus. Jehovah could bring the dynasty to its end. The word “MENE” appeared twice in the inscription, perhaps because the message applied to both rulers in the kingdom of Babylon at that time, Nabonidus and Belshazzar. However, Daniel, in giving the interpretation, used “MENE” only once, possibly because only Belshazzar was present on this occasion.

THE BIBLE DOES NOT REVEAL WHY NONE OF BABYLON’S WISE MEN WERE ABLE TO READ THE WRITING. (DAN. 5:8) IT MAY HAVE BEEN BECAUSE OF THE CRYPTIC NATURE OF THE MESSAGE, OR THE WRITING ITSELF MAY HAVE BEEN IN A SCRIPT OR LANGUAGE UNKNOWN TO THEM.

MENNA

(Menʹna).

A distant maternal ancestor of Jesus Christ, not far removed from David.—Luke 3:31.

MENSTRUATION

(menʹstru·aʹtion).

The periodic discharge of the menses (blood, fluid and some tissue debris) from a woman’s uterus. The English term “menses” is the plural of the Latin mensis, meaning “month.” Menstruation of women is generally a monthly experience, occurring about every four weeks. Girls begin menstruating at puberty and this function normally continues until menopause, each menstrual flow usually lasting from three to five days.

The Scriptures associate menstruation with impurity and uncleanness (Lev. 12:2; Ezek. 22:10; 36:17), a form of the Hebrew word relating to it (nid-dahʹ) sometimes being rendered “menstrual impurity.” (Lev. 15:25, 26) A form of another Hebrew term, da·wehʹ, which can denote illness (Lam. 5:17), is used in the expression “menstruating woman.” (Lev. 15:33; Isa. 30:22) Menstruation is also meant by the phrase “the customary thing with women.”—Gen. 31:35.

“UNCLEAN” UNDER LAW

According to the Mosaic law, a woman was considered unclean for seven days during normal menstruation. The bed or any other articles upon which the menstruating woman might lie or sit were also rendered unclean. Anyone touching her or items she had made unclean was required to wash his garments and bathe, and remained unclean until the evening. If her menstrual impurity came to be upon a man lying down with her (as when, unwittingly, a husband had sexual relations with his wife at the beginning of menstruation) he was rendered unclean for seven days, and the bed upon which he might lie down was considered unclean.

The woman was also viewed as unclean for the duration of an irregular running discharge of blood or “a flow longer than her menstrual impurity,” at which time she made the articles on which she lay or sat as well as persons touching these items unclean. After the abnormal discharge ceased she was to count seven days, and she then became clean. On the eighth day the woman brought two turtledoves or two male pigeons to the priest, who made atonement for