later, had increased to 53,400 making it the fifth most populous tribe. (Num. 26:47) In the camp of Israel Asher occupied a position on the north side of the tabernacle, with the tribes of Dan and Naphtali.—Num. 2:25-30.

Prior to entry into Canaan, Moses’ prophetic blessing again predicted a prosperous portion for Asher. The tribe was figuratively to ‘dip its foot in oil.’ (Deut. 33:24, 25; compare Job 29:6.) Their allotment of territory stretched along the Mediterranean coastal plains from below the town of Dor, S of Mount Carmel, on up to the N boundary of Palestine at Sidon. (Josh. 17:7-11; 19:24-31) This included some of the most fertile land in all Palestine, where olive trees would provide abundant oil, while other fruits would provide dainties fit to grace a royal table. (Gen. 49:20; Deut. 33:24) The territories of Zebulun and Naphtali lay along Asher’s E boundary, with Manasseh and Issachar to the S and SE.

3. Asher appears to be the name of a town listed as on the boundary of the tribe of Manasseh. (Josh. 17:7) The suggested location is Teyasir about eleven miles (17.7 kilometers) NE of Shechem on the road to Beth-shean. However, it may be noted that Asher is also referred to in this same account at verse 10, where it clearly refers to the tribal territory of Asher.

ASHERAH

See SACRED POLE.

ASHERITE

A descendant of Asher, Jacob’s second son by Leah’s maidservant Zilpah (Gen. 30:12, 13), and a member of the tribe of Asher.—Judg. 1:31, 32; see ASHER.

ASHES

The term often employed in the Scriptures for the residue from the burning of materials and frequently having symbolic or figurative connotations. The word “ashes” is rendered from the Hebrew words ʼeʹpher (light, fine, as dust) and deʹshen (fatness) and the Greek words spo·dosʹ (hot ashes, embers) and te·phroʹo (to turn into ashes). The residue from burning could also be referred to as dust (ʽa·pharʹ).—Num. 19:17; 2 Ki. 23:4.

Each day a Levitical priest removed the fatty ashes (deʹshen) resulting from the burning of animal sacrifices upon the altar and took them “out to a clean place outside the camp.” (Lev. 6:9-11) According to Numbers chapter 19, a sound red cow without defect and upon which no yoke had come was also slaughtered and burned outside the camp. The ashes of this “sin offering” were deposited in a clean place outside the camp (vs. 9) and thus a portion was available for mixing with water and for sprinkling some of this mixture on unclean persons or things so as to purify them. (Vs. 17) The apostle Paul referred to the figurative cleansing of the flesh by “the ashes [Gr., spo·dosʹ] of a heifer” to highlight the far greater cleansing of “consciences from dead works” possible through “the blood of the Christ.”—Heb. 9:13, 14.

Jeremiah 31:40 refers to “the low plain of the carcasses and of the fatty ashes [deʹshen],” probably some part of the valley of the son of Hinnom. Until relatively recent times a mound of ashes near the Kidron Valley was a familiar landmark. It is said to have been about 500 feet long, 200 feet wide and 60 feet deep (c. 152 by 61 by 18 meters), and is considered by some to relate to the place mentioned by Jeremiah. A part of the valley of the son of Hinnom could have been set aside for the disposal of ashes left after burning sacrifices (Lev. 4:12), before Topheth in the valley was made unfit for worship by Josiah. (2 Ki. 23:10) But animal carcasses and the dead bodies of vile criminals might also have been cast into the valley, and a mound there might even include the ashes of humans once sacrificed in false religious rites.—Jer. 32:35.

In Biblical times it was customary to burn captured cities, so that ‘reducing a place to ashes’ was indicative of its complete destruction, as shown in the cases of Tyre, Sodom and Gomorrah.—Ezek. 28:18; 2 Pet. 2:6.

Ashes also served as a figure of what was insignificant or valueless, Abraham acknowledging before Jehovah, for instance, “I am dust and ashes.” (Gen. 18:27; see also Isaiah 44:20; Job 30:19.) And Job likened the sayings of his false comforters to “proverbs of ashes.”—Job 13:12.

It was a practice in Biblical days to sit in ashes or to scatter them upon oneself in symbol of mourning, humiliation and repentance. (Esther 4:1-3; Jer. 6:26; 2 Sam. 13:19) Deep misery and affliction are figuratively linked with the ‘eating of ashes’ (Ps. 102:9), and afflicted Job sat “in among the ashes.”—Job 2:8.

Sackcloth and ashes were sometimes associated with fasting, weeping or sorrow. (Esther 4:3; Isa. 58:5; Ezek. 27:30, 31; Dan. 9:3) A national example of humiliation and repentance is furnished in the case of Nineveh in Jonah’s day, even her king covering himself with sackcloth and sitting down in the ashes. (Jonah 3:5, 6) Repenting in sackcloth and ashes was a circumstance referred to by Jesus Christ (Matt. 11:21), and in answering Jehovah, Job contritely declared: “I do repent in dust and ashes.”—Job 42:6.

During the seventy-year desolation of Judah the Jews in Babylon mourned over the desolation of Zion or Jerusalem and its temple. But through Isaiah assurance had been given that under the power of Jehovah’s spirit there would be action “to assign to those mourning over Zion, to give them a headdress instead of ashes.” Jesus Christ applied the passage of Isaiah 61:1-3 to himself as the Messianic Liberator who would be instrumental in relieving greater spiritual desolation and mourning. (Luke 4:16-21) It was also foretold that the wicked would become like pulverized, powdery ashes to the righteous, for Malachi wrote “‘And you people will certainly tread down the wicked ones, for they will become as powder [ʼeʹpher] under the soles of your feet in the day on which I am acting,’ Jehovah of armies has said.”—Mal. 4:3.

ASH-HEAPS, GATE OF THE

See GATE, GATEWAY.

ASHHUR

(Ashʹhur) [perhaps, blackness].

Son of Hezron, born after his father’s death, and great-grandson of Judah. (1 Chron. 2:4, 5, 24) By his two wives he fathered seven sons. (1 Chron. 4:5-7) He is also said to be the father of Tekoa, which some construe to mean that he was the founder of the town by that name.

ASHIMA

(A·shiʹma).

A deity worshiped by the people from Hamath whom the king of Assyria settled in Samaria after his taking the Israelites into captivity. (2 Ki. 17:24, 30) Although numerous attempts have been made to identify Ashima with another deity, nothing can be stated with any certainty aside from what is contained in the Bible. Ashima, according to the Babylonian Talmud, was represented as a hairless he-goat, and for this reason some have identified Ashima with Pan, a pastoral god of fertility. Another suggestion is that the name Ashima may be a deliberate alteration of “Ashera” (the Canaanite fertility goddess) to combine it with the Hebrew word ʼa·shamʹ (guilt).

ASHKELON

(Ashʹke·lon) [perhaps, weighing place or market].

A seaport on the Mediterranean and one of the five principal Philistine cities. (Josh. 13:3) Located about twelve miles (19 kilometers) N of Gaza, the city was situated in a naturally formed rocky amphitheater, the concave part facing toward the Mediterranean. The countryside is fertile, producing apples, figs, and the small onion known as the “scallion,” which apparently derives its name from that of the Philistine city.

Ashkelon was assigned to the tribe of Judah and was captured by them, but it apparently did not remain subject to them for long. (Judg. 1:18, 19) It was a Philistine city in the time of Samson and of Samuel. (Judg. 14:19; 1 Sam. 6:17) David mentions it in his lament over the death of Saul and Jonathan. (2 Sam. 1:20) In King Uzziah’s conquest of Philistine cities, Ashkelon is not listed as among those taken.—2 Chron. 26:6.

In the prophecy of Amos (about 803 B.C.E.) prediction was made of defeat for the ruler of Ashkelon. (Amos 1:8) Secular history shows that in the succeeding century Tiglath-pileser III of Assyria made Asqalluna (Ashkelon) a vassal city. Jeremiah (after 647 B.C.E.) uttered two prophecies involving Ashkelon. While Jeremiah 47:2-7 could have seen some fulfillment when Nebuchadnezzar sacked the city early in his reign (c. 624 B.C.E.), yet the prophecy at Jeremiah 25:17-20, 28, 29 clearly indicates a fulfillment subsequent to the fall of Jerusalem in 607 B.C.E. Zephaniah’s prophecy (written before 648 B.C.E.) also foretold a coming desolation for Ashkelon, along with other Philistine cities, after which the remnant of Judah would eventually occupy the “houses of Ashkelon.” (Zeph. 2:4-7) Finally, about 518 B.C.E., Zechariah proclaimed doom for Ashkelon in connection with the time of Tyre’s desolation (332 B.C.E.).—Zech. 9:3-5.

Ashkelon was a center of false worship of the goddess Derceto, represented as having the body of a fish. Traditionally, it was the birthplace of Herod the Great and the residence of his sister Salome. Today it is only a desolate site.

ASHKELONITE

(Ashʹke·lon·ite).

A resident of the Philistine city of Ashkelon.—Josh. 13:3; see PHILISTIA, PHILISTINES.

ASHKENAZ

(Ashʹke·naz).

The first named of three sons of Gomer, the son of Japheth.—Gen. 10:3; 1 Chron. 1:6.

Jeremiah 51:27 mentions a kingdom of Ashkenaz as allying itself with the kingdoms of Ararat and Minni against Babylon at the time of her downfall (539 B.C.E.). Since Ararat is believed to have been located in the region of Lake Van in Armenia and Minni (referred to as Mannai in Assyrian inscriptions) is considered to have been SE of Lake Van, it is likely that the kingdom of Ashkenaz lay near these regions, probably somewhat to the N in the area between the Black and Caspian Seas.

The name Ashkenaz is considered by archaeologists as equivalent to the Assyrian Ashguza, which term was evidently applied to the ancient Scythians of the Black Sea and Caspian Sea area. Cuneiform tablets record an alliance between this tribe and the Mannai (Minni) in a revolt against Assyria in the seventh century B.C.E.

In Jewish writings of medieval times (and even thereafter) the term Ashkenaz was applied to the Teutonic race, and more specifically to Germany. Thus, even today Jews from Germanic countries are referred to as Ashkenazim in contrast to the Sephardim, Jews from Spain and Portugal.

ASHNAH

(Ashʹnah) [hard, firm].

1. A town of Judah in the Shephelah mentioned among other cities, including Eshtaol and Zorah. (Josh. 15:33) A tentative identification is the village of ʽAslin, between Eshtaol and Zorah, near the edge of the Judean coastal plain.

2. A second town of Judah, listed among nine cities and evidently farther to the S than the first Ashnah. (Josh. 15:43) The identification is uncertain; a suggested site is Idhna, located about midway between Hebron and Lachish, and about five miles (8 kilometers) from Mareshah, which appears in the same list.

ASHPENAZ

(Ashʹpe·naz).

The chief court official, or, more literally, the master of the eunuchs, in Babylon during Nebuchadnezzar’s reign. (Dan. 1:3) The title in time came to designate a high official in the royal court who doubtless headed the corps of eunuchs but who himself may not have been a eunuch. Such official had as one of his duties the training of youths to serve as pages of the monarch.

ASHTAROTH

(Ashʹta·roth).

A city in the region of Bashan, generally identified today with Tell ʽAshterah about twenty miles (32 kilometers) E of the Sea of Galilee. The low hill there is surrounded by a well-watered plain. Its name would indicate that it was a center of worship of the goddess Ashtoreth or Astarte.

Biblical references to it are principally with regard to giant King Og of Bashan, who is spoken of as reigning “in Ashtaroth, in Edrei.” (Deut. 1:4; Josh. 9:10; 12:4; 13:12) The conquered territory of Og’s kingdom was originally assigned to the Machirites of the tribe of Manasseh, but Ashtaroth later passed to the Gershonites as a Levitical city. (Josh. 13:29-31; 1 Chron. 6:71) At Joshua 21:27, which corresponds with the account at 1 Chronicles 6:71, the city is called Beeshterah, understood to mean “house of Astarte.”

The city is referred to in Assyrian inscriptions and in the Tell el-Amarna Letters.

ASHTERATHITE

(Ashʹte·rath·ite).

An inhabitant of Ashtaroth. Only Uzzia, one of David’s mighty men, is so designated.—1 Chron. 11:44.

ASHTEROTH-KARNAIM

(Ashʹte·roth-kar·naʹim).

The site of the defeat of the Rephaim by Chedorlaomer, king of Elam. (Gen. 14:5) Some have supposed it to be the full name for Ashtaroth and that the addition of “karnaim” (horns) refers to the two horns of the crescent moon symbolizing the goddess Astarte, or to twin peaks adjacent to the town. However, it is also suggested that the name means ‘Ashteroth near Karnaim’ and that it thus refers to the city of Ashtaroth with Karnaim being mentioned as a separate but adjacent town. Reference is made to Karnaim during the Maccabean period (1 Maccabees 5:26, 43, 44; 2 Maccabees 12:21, 26), and the site is considered to be located at Sheikh Saʽad, which lies about three miles (5 kilometers) N of Tell ʽAshterah, the generally accepted site of Ashtaroth.—See ASHTAROTH.

Tiglath-pileser III of Assyria makes mention of Qarnini in his conquest of the region, evidently referring to Karnaim.

ASHTORETH

(Ashʹto·reth).

A goddess of the Canaanites, considered to be the wife of Baal. Ashtoreth is often represented as a nude female with rudely exaggerated sex organs. The worship of this goddess was widespread among various peoples of antiquity, and the name “Ashtoreth” was common in one form or another. The Greek name is Astarte. Ashtoreth is thought to be but another manifestation of the ancient Babylonian mother goddess of sensual love, maternity and fertility, and has been linked with Ishtar and similar fertility goddesses.

The worship of Ashtoreth possibly existed in Canaan as early as Abraham’s time, for one of the cities there was called “Ashteroth-karnaim.” (Gen. 14:5) Also mentioned in Scripture is the city of Ashtaroth, the dwelling place of the giant King Og of Bashan. Its name would indicate that this city may have been a center of Ashtoreth worship.—Deut. 1:4; Josh. 9:10; 12:4.

The singular form ʽash·toʹreth (Ashtoreth) first appears in the Bible with reference to King Solomon’s apostatizing toward the latter part of his reign. At that time Israelites began worshiping the Ashtoreth of the Sidonians. (1 Ki. 11:5, 33) The only other occurrence of the singular form is in connection with King Josiah’s tearing down the high places that Solomon had built to Ashtoreth and other deities. (2 Ki. 23:13) It has been suggested that the Hebrew form ʽash·toʹreth is probably an artificial combination