Luke 8:27, and of Matthew 20:30 with Mark 10:46 and Luke 18:35.) So, while Mark quoted Jesus’ statement concerning the two cockcrowings, the other three writers only mentioned the second and last one, which provoked Peter’s giving way to tears; but by this they did not deny that there was an earlier cockcrowing.

It is generally agreed that cockcrowing has long been and still is a time indicator in the lands to the E of the Mediterranean, and that there is an early cockcrowing around midnight and a later one toward the dawning; while some indicate an additional one between these two. Clarke’s Commentary, Vol. V, p. 620, col. 2, says: “The Jews, and some other nations, divided the cock-crowing into the first, the second, and the third times.” While it may not be possible now to assign specific times to these periodic cockcrowings, it is sufficient to know that they existed and that before two such cockcrowings Peter’s three denials took place.

COCKROACH

[hha·silʹ, considered to be derived from a root meaning “to finish off,” “to consume,” “to cut off,” “to devour”].

There is uncertainty as to the particular insect referred to by the Hebrew word hha·silʹ. It has been variously rendered “caterpillar,” “cricket,” “stripper,” “shearer,” “locust,” “grasshopper” and “cockroach,” (Compare Isaiah 33:4 and Joel 1:4 in AS, AT, JB, Le and NW.) According to a recent Hebrew and Aramaic lexicon by Koehler and Baumgartner, the noxious insect designated by the Hebrew word hha·silʹ is different from the locust (ʼar·behʹ), probably the cockroach.

The cockroach has long, strong legs, enabling it to run with amazing speed. It is, in fact, one of the fastest of insect runners. This insect has a flat face and a short head, equipped with long threadlike antennae or feelers, and gives the appearance of looking slightly downward. Its compact-shaped body enables the cockroach to slip into narrow openings. Most of the species are somberly colored in black or brown and have a flattened, slippery body covered with a shiny casing. Disliking bright light, cockroaches usually come out only at night to feed. Considering that the cockroach devours almost anything, including vegetation, garbage, clothing and furniture, it may well be the insect corresponding to the Hebrew hha·silʹ.

The prophet Joel foretold a devastating onslaught by a horde of insects that would desolate the land, mentioning the hha·silʹ last, as the insect that consumes whatever has been left behind by the others. (Joel 1:4) Later, the prophet tells of the time when there will be blessings and forgiveness. The invader will be turned back and compensation made for what the hha·silʹ and the other members of God’s “great military force” have eaten. (Joel 2:25) With respect to such a divinely sent plague of insects, including the hha·silʹ, Solomon prayed that Jehovah might forgive his people if they repented of their sins. (1 Ki. 8:37-40; 2 Chron. 6:28-31) The hha·silʹ also figured in the devastation Jehovah brought upon Egypt during the plague of locusts.—Ps. 78:46.

In chapter thirty-three of Isaiah, the prophet takes note of the terrifying days of the Assyrian aggression. King Sennacherib’s army had been ravaging cities, and Isaiah asks for God’s favor, recalling that Jehovah had risen up against nations before, and assures the people that the Almighty will smite the enemy, forcing him to leave behind great spoil. The plunder of the Assyrian army would be collected by the Israelites, just as the hha·silʹ spread over a land, moving to and fro without molestation, gathering in whatever is in their way, consuming everything—thus God’s people would gather in the spoils of the Assyrian army. (Isa. 33:1-4) This would be a very striking figure of speech in a land that knew such devastation by hordes of hha·silʹ.

CODEX

The word “codex” is derived from the Latin word caudex and is applied to early types of tablets, notebooks and book forms. Originally the word meant a tree trunk, but later it conveyed the thought of a block of wood split into tablets or leaves. The early codex was a wood or ivory writing tablet smeared over with wax, which formed a surface on which one could write with a stylus. The individual tablets were bound together by cords, rings or clasps and, when assembled, were called a codex because they looked similar to a tree trunk. Various Bible references may pertain to single tablets of this type used in ancient times for letters, memorandums, schoolwork, bookkeeping and the like. (Isa. 8:1; 30:8; Luke 1:63) However, the early codices were very unwieldy and were impractical for large literary works.

Near the approach of the Common Era, the Romans began to use parchment instead of wood for their notebooks, and they designated such parchment notebooks by the Latin word membranae, meaning “skin prepared for writing.” The apostle Paul used the Greek word mem·braʹnas when he requested Timothy to bring the “parchments.” (2 Tim. 4:13) With the change in material, the codex began to develop rapidly, due to the flexibility of the parchment leaves and the portability of the volume.

The construction of the improved codex was simple and similar in many respects to that of books today. Basically, it consisted of leaves that were often bound between two lids or covers. The leaves were sewed together in groups called “quires” (also known as signatures, or gatherings). The later codices generally contained quires prepared by folding several sheets of papyrus or parchment in half and thus forming twice as many leaves. In time, four or five sheets, which made a quire of eight to ten pages, were found to be most convenient for binding. The sheets of each quire were sewed together before they were stacked and bound between the two lids, to complete the codex. Early experiments produced some extreme types of codices. One was composed of one large single quire that was sewed down the center fold. The edge of this type of codex had to be trimmed, because when it was closed the center pages protruded like a wedge beyond the outer pages. This created a problem, since these center pages were much narrower than the others. Another early type was made up of single-sheet quires. Each sheet was folded individually and stacked one on top of the other before they were sewed together to form a single codex. But neither of these types achieved popularity, the multiple-quire codex becoming the most acceptable.

After the transition of the codex from notebook to book form, the superiority of the codex over the traditional scroll became apparent. For example, a scroll 104 feet (c. 31.7 meters) long might be needed to contain the four Gospels, whereas one compact codex could accommodate them all. In addition, the codex was more economical, since it was possible to write on both sides of a page. Furthermore, the lids afforded excellent protection for the contents, and various references could be located quickly without the tedious manipulation of scrolls.

Archaeological findings, especially at Fayum and Oxyrhynchus in Egypt, vouch for the rapid development of the codex by the early Christians. Although papyrus deteriorates quickly in damp earth, Egypt’s very dry soil has preserved over one hundred papyrus codices of the Scriptures (or fragments thereof) written before the end of the fourth century C.E. It is observed that practically all second-century papyrus Bible manuscripts are codices, whereas only 2.4 percent of the total pagan literature finds of the same period were codices. This strongly suggests that the early Christians discarded the conventional scroll for the more convenient codex very early in Christian times, and this was a factor that played an important part in its development.