participle m^ehho·qeqʹ, which is from a Hebrew root meaning to inscribe or engrave and hence, by implication to decree or enact. In ancient times, laws that were enacted were inscribed or engraved on stone or metal tablets. The same Hebrew word can apply to a commander who issues decrees, a “statute-giver.” (Deut. 33:21) Without peer among legislators is Jehovah, the supreme “Statute-giver.”—Isa. 33:22.

When a commander was seated, his long staff would often rest upon the ground and lie back against the fold of his robe, between his knees. This fact lends meaning to Jacob’s deathbed blessing of Judah: “The scepter will not turn aside from Judah, neither the commander’s staff from between his feet, until Shiloh comes.” (Gen. 49:10) Here the Hebrew word m^ehho·qeqʹ has been rendered “lawgiver” in some translations (AV; Yg), but its other meaning, “commander’s staff” (NW; Ro), is more appropriate in this case and has the support of modern lexicographers. (Lexicon in Veteris Testamenti Libros, by Koehler and Baumgartner, 1953, p. 328; A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament, by Brown, Driver and Briggs, p. 349) That an object and not a person is evidently intended at Genesis 49:10 is the understanding conveyed in various translations, which have renderings such as “ruler’s staff” (AS; RS), “staff of sway” (Mo) and “staff” (AT). A staff of some type, a “commander’s staff,” also nicely parallels the “scepter” and goes with the phrase “from between his feet” appearing in the same verse. Similar usage is found at Numbers 21:17, 18, where a well is said to be excavated “with a commander’s staff, with their own staffs,” though a possible reading there is, “with a commander, with their rulers.” At Genesis 49:10 an alternate, though not preferable, reading for “neither the commander’s staff” is “neither a commander.”

In ancient sculptures certain monarchs have been represented with a long staff or a scepter in hand. For instance, in a relief at his palace in Khorsabad, Assyrian King Sargon II was shown holding a staff. Since a “scepter” is a staff or rod, some might conclude that there is no difference between the “scepter” and the “commander’s staff” of Genesis 49:10. However, it appears that Jacob intended to make a distinction between them. Parallel terms are often employed in poetic expressions. Though they are similar, upon closer examination one term is seen to convey to the mind a slightly different thought than the other, frequently enhancing one’s understanding of what has been said. Jacob seems to have used such a device in blessing his sons. For example, he stated that Dan would “prove to be a serpent by the roadside, a horned snake at the wayside” (Gen. 49:17), using these parallel expressions in a good sense to indicate that Dan would be a peril to the foes of Israel.

God himself is identified as saying: “Judah is my commander’s staff.” (Ps. 60:7; 108:8) While holding the “commander’s staff” seems to indicate that the possessor would be a leader with the power to command, a scepter in a monarch’s hand signifies his possession of regal sovereignty or prerogative as a royal ruler. (Ps. 45:6) Therefore, the use of the terms “scepter” and “commander’s staff” at Genesis 49:10 evidently indicates that significant authority and power would reside with the tribe of Judah. But that more than tribal authority and dominance were involved seems clear since Shiloh, to whom “the obedience of the people will belong,” was to come from the tribe of Judah. That circumstance betokens royal authority and power over the people. When Judah’s descendant David became the king of Israel, the scepter and commander’s staff proved to be in the possession of the tribe of Judah and these would not depart from it before the coming of Shiloh, the Messiah. (2 Sam. 7:8-16) God has indeed given the Shiloh to come, Jesus Christ, a descendant of Judah and David, as “a leader and commander to the national groups.” (Isa. 55:4) It was foretold that the Messianic Ruler would exercise dominance and power over the nations and peoples. (Ps. 2:8, 9; Dan. 7:13, 14) Hence, he not only holds the “scepter” or royal sovereignty but also possesses the “commander’s staff,” having the power to command.—See SHILOH.

COMMUNICATION

Information and ideas were transmitted from person to person in a variety of ways in Bible lands of antiquity. To a great extent, ordinary local and foreign news was communicated by word of mouth. (2 Sam. 3:17, 19; Job 37:20) Travelers, who often journeyed with caravans, related news from distant places when they stopped for food, water and other provisions at cities or points along the caravan routes. In its unique position with relation to Asia, Africa and Europe, the land of Palestine was traversed by caravans traveling to and from distant points. So its residents could readily acquire information regarding significant events in foreign lands. News, both national and foreign, could often be obtained in the city marketplace.—See MARKET PLACE.

Short-range communication was sometimes achieved through the use of audible or visual signals or by word of mouth. (Josh. 8:18, 19; 1 Sam. 20:20-22, 35-39) After Israel departed from Egypt, Moses was instructed to make two silver trumpets for communication purposes. Blasts on these trumpets by the Aaronic priests signaled such things as the convening of the assembly, or the gathering of chieftains, the orderly breaking up of camp and a call for war against an enemy. (Num. 10:1-10) The blowing of a horn by Gideon served as a signal to his men to begin the victorious battle against Midian.—Judg. 7:18-22; see HORN; TRUMPET.

Oral or written messages sent out by officials would frequently be carried by runners. (2 Sam. 18:19-32) Runners carrying letters from King Hezekiah went throughout Israel and Judah summoning the people to Jerusalem for a Passover celebration. (2 Chron. 30:6-12) Couriers in the service of Persian King Ahasuerus rode speedy post horses and in that way circulated the royal counterdecree that foiled Haman’s scheme to annihilate the Jews in the Persian Empire. (Esther 8:10-17) Written letters and documents were used by most governments of antiquity for effective administration. Depending upon time and place, these were usually written on such materials as clay tablets, papyrus and animal skins. Archaeologists have found many ancient governmental communications or business documents. Royal decrees were proclaimed by heralds. (Dan. 3:4-6) Of course, messengers were also used by persons other than rulers.—See COURIER; HERALD; MESSENGER.

Communication within a country or over some greater distance came to depend greatly on roads or highways. There were good roads in early Israel and Judah and they were kept in serviceable condition. Later, the Romans constructed fine roads leading from Rome to all parts of the Empire, these facilitating official communication and the movement of troops. When Jesus Christ was on earth, people traveled over such roads in great numbers. Christians, especially Paul and his fellow missionaries, enjoyed their use when journeying to Asia Minor and Europe to establish and revisit Christian congregations.

Official communications, along with general news, were also carried by ships that sailed the Mediterranean Sea, putting in at various ports. The Roman government used ships on some occasions (usually in summer) to carry official messages, but it seems that the bulk of such communication was transmitted on the overland routes. These were more dependable.

An official postal service was developed by the Romans, but it was used only for governmental communications. The people in general had to depend upon acquaintances to deliver their letters. When the circumcision issue was resolved by the governing body in Jerusalem and a letter was sent out as a means of communication, it was delivered in a direct personal way. (Acts 15:22-31) That was also the case with such inspired letters as the one Paul sent to Christians in Colossae, it being carried by Tychicus and Onesimus.—Col. 4:7-9; see LETTERS.

Jehovah is a communicative God and has recognized the need for his people to have written communication. He himself was responsible for the composition of the Ten Commandments on stone tablets. (Ex. 31:18) By means of divine inspiration a number of faithful Hebrew men (commencing with Moses in 1513 B.C.E.) were moved to write down Jehovah’s communications. Of course, included in the resulting Holy Scriptures are the various inspired letters that supplemented oral communications provided to help establish proper Christian views as to doctrine and deportment.

COMPASS

An instrument used by a carpenter or other craftsman to mark or inscribe a circle or arc on wood or some other material. The compass is also employed in making various geometric figures. Doubtless, compasses of antiquity were quite similar to those in use today and consisted of a pair of pointed legs joined at the top in a way that allowed them to be adjusted to vary the distance between the points. In modern times, a pencil or pen can sometimes be attached to one leg so as to pivot and mark paper or other material when the other, pointed leg, is set in a stationary position. When compasses have two sharp points, one of them can be used to scratch or scribe arcs or circles. Yet, draftsmen sometimes call such compasses “dividers” because the two sharp points can be used to measure off equal spaces on drawings or can be employed to transfer a certain measurement from one place to another. Hence, many artisans and mathematicians use the compass today, and a similar instrument was employed by the early Egyptians and Babylonians in their mathematical calculations.

The only Biblical reference to a compass is at Isaiah 44:13. There the idolatrous wood-carver is said to use the measuring line, red chalk and a wood scraper to fashion an idol. And, “with a compass he keeps tracing it out [evidently to make sure it is well-proportioned], and gradually he makes it like the representation of a man, like the beauty of mankind, to sit in a house.”

COMPENSATION

Under the Law given to Israel through Moses, compensation was demanded where there was injury or loss in any field of human relations. Compensation also had to be made for work done or services rendered. Hired laborers, whether Israelites or alien residents or others, were to be paid their wages on the same day.—Lev. 19:13; Deut. 24:14, 15.

INJURIES TO PERSONS

One who injured another in a quarrel by striking him was required to make compensation to him for time lost from work, until the person was completely healed.—Ex. 21:18, 19.

If, in the process of a fight between men, a pregnant woman was injured or her child(ren) ‘came out,’ but no fatal accident occurred, the guilty man was to have damages imposed on him by the owner of the woman. (In case the husband made an exorbitant claim, the judges would fix the sum to be paid.)—Ex. 21:22.

If a bull was in the habit of goring and its owner had been warned of this fact but did not keep the animal under guard, then, in the event that it gored a slave to death, the slave’s master was to receive a thirty-shekel compensation from the bull’s owner. This applied to foreign slaves, not Hebrews, according to Jewish commentators. If the bull gored a free person, the owner was to die. However, if, in the eyes of the judges, circumstances or other factors allowed for a more lenient penalty, a ransom could be imposed on him. In such a case the owner of the goring bull had to pay whatever amount the judges imposed. Additionally, the owner suffered the loss of the bull, which was stoned to death. Its flesh could not be eaten. (Ex. 21:28-32) This law also evidently applied in the case of other animals able to inflict mortal wounds.

If a man seduced an unengaged virgin, he had to take her as his wife; or if the father flatly refused to give her to him, he had to pay her father the purchase price for virgins (50 shekels), the usual bride price, because her diminished value as a bride would now have to be compensated for.—Ex. 22:16, 17; Deut. 22:28, 29.

SLANDER

A man falsely charging his wife with deceptively claiming to be a virgin at the time of marriage was required to pay her father double the price for virgins (2 x 50 shekels) for bringing a bad name upon a virgin of Israel.—Deut. 22:13-19.

A form of compensation was also involved in the case of a man falsely charging his wife with unfaithfulness. If the charge had been true, she would have suffered the wasting away of her reproductive organs, losing the privilege of childbearing, whereas, when she was found innocent, her husband was required to make her pregnant. Thus she could be blessed with a child.—Num. 5:11-15, 22, 28.

STEALING

Stealing was deterred by the Law. Concerning a thief, it read: “He is to make compensation without fail. If he has nothing, then he must be sold for the things he stole. If there should be unmistakably found in his hand what was stolen, from bull to ass and to sheep, alive, he is to make double compensation.” This included money or other articles as well as animals. If the thief had slaughtered the stolen animal, or had sold it, then he would have to make heavier compensation, namely, for a bull five of the herd, and for a sheep four of the flock. (Ex. 22:1, 3, 4, 7) This law had the effect of protecting and recompensing the victim and made the thief work to pay for his crime, rather than sit in a jail as an economic burden to the community, with the victim uncompensated for his loss.

INJURIES, AND PROPERTY DAMAGES

A man who killed another’s animal was required to pay for it. (Lev. 24:18, 21) When one animal killed another, the live one was sold and the price of both it and the dead animal was equally divided between the owners. However, if the animal was known to be a vicious one, the owner compensated the other by giving the other a live bull and taking the dead and, consequently, much less valuable one.—Ex. 21:35, 36.

The best of one’s own field or vineyard was to be given up as compensation for the damage done by an animal’s trespassing and grazing on another’s field. If one started a fire that got into another person’s field, causing damage, the owner had to be compensated equally. The heavier judgment for damage by the trespassing animal was because animals are easier to control than fire, also because the grazing animal was receiving gain unjustly like a thief; therefore more than equal compensation was required.—Ex. 22:5, 6.

BAILMENTS

When items or goods were left with another for safekeeping and during this time were stolen, the thief, if found, had to make the usual double compensation. Things such as money, articles, and so forth, would not require special care, but only a safe place. In the case of a domestic animal kept for another, the one keeping the animal (bailee) was to exercise the same care that he did for his own flock. Such bailees were usually paid for food the