animals needed, and sometimes they were probably paid also for the extra trouble of keeping the animals. If an animal died of itself, was torn by a wild beast or was taken by a band of marauders, the bailee was free from blame. The loss was beyond his control. This might happen to his own animals, but if it was stolen (by someone whom the bailee could have prevented, or through his negligence) the bailee was responsible and was required to make compensation.—Ex. 22:7-13; see Genesis 31:38-42.

A man who borrowed an animal from another person for his own use had to compensate for any damages incurred. (Ex. 22:14) If its owner was with it, no compensation was required, on the principle that the individual would be watching his own property. If it was a hired item, the owner would stand the loss because he supposedly would consider the risk in setting a hiring price.—Ex. 22:15.

COMPULSORY SERVICE

The Hebrew word for “compulsory service” is seʹvel, which has to do with a literal or figurative load, an enforced burden, or burdensome labor. It can apply to corvée, that is, unpaid or partially unpaid work that an authority imposes on certain people, such as residents of a particular area.

The psalmist, in reflecting on the deliverance of Israel from Egyptian bondage, represented Jehovah as saying: “I turned aside his shoulder even from the burden” or “even from compulsory service.” (Ps. 81:6; compare NW, 1957 edition; Ex. 1:11.) King Solomon conscripted men for forced labor for various building projects and placed foremen over them. (1 Ki. 5:13; 9:15, 23) When Solomon observed that the young man Jeroboam was a hard worker, “he proceeded to make him overseer over all the compulsory service of the house of Joseph,” that is, over the men conscripted from the tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh.—1 Ki. 11:26-28.

Associated with the Hebrew word seʹvel is sab·balʹ, meaning burden bearer. After taking a census of the men who were temporary residents in Israel, Solomon put them in service, and seventy thousand of their number became burden bearers. (2 Chron. 2:2, 17, 18) Many years later King Josiah repaired the temple, and “the burden bearers” were among those doing the work.—2 Chron. 34:12, 13.

The Hebrew word tsa·vaʼʹ, which often applies to military service or service in war, also means “compulsory labor,” that is, to pay off debt or guilt. Thus Jerusalem was to be told that her “military service” had been fulfilled and her error had been paid off. (Isa. 40 1, 2) When under test, distressed and pain-wracked Job likened life to hard, fatiguing service or “compulsory labor,” asking: “Is there not a compulsory labor for mortal man on earth, and are not his days like the days of a hired laborer?” (Job 7:1) With similar sentiment, he later said to God: “You will make your vexation with me greater; hardship after hardship is with me,” or “one shift of compulsory labor after another is with me.” Job evidently felt that God was adding to his affliction by bringing one new hardship after another upon him. Nevertheless, Job said: “All the days of my compulsory service I shall wait, until my relief comes.”—Job 10:2, 17; 9:1; 14:13-15.

CONANIAH

(Con·a·niʹah) [Jehovah has established].

1. The Levite in charge of the contributions for temple service during Hezekiah’s reign.—2 Chron. 31:4, 12, 13.

2. A Levite chief among those generously contributing sheep, goats and cattle for the great Passover Celebration held in the eighteenth year of Josiah’s reign.—2 Chron. 35:9, 19.

CONCUBINE

Among the Hebrews a concubine occupied a position in the nature of a secondary wife, and was sometimes spoken of as a wife. It appears that concubines were slave girls, one of three kinds: (1) a Hebrew girl sold by her father (Ex. 21:7-9), (2) a foreign slave girl purchased or (3) a foreign girl captured in warfare. (Deut. 21:10-14) Some were the slave girls or handmaids of the free wife, as in the cases of Sarah, Leah and Rachel.—Gen. 16:3, 4; 30:3-13; Judg. 8:31; 9:18.

Concubinage was in existence before the Law covenant and was recognized and regulated by the Law, which protected the rights of both wives and concubines. (Ex. 21:7-11; Deut. 21:14-17) Concubines did not have all the rights in the household that the regular wife had, and a man might have a plurality of wives along with concubines. (1 Ki. 11:3; 2 Chron. 11:21) In cases where the wife was barren she sometimes gave her handmaid to the husband as a concubine, and the child born of the concubine would then be considered as the child of the free wife, her mistress. (Gen. 16:2; 30:3) Sons of concubines were legitimate, not bastards, and could inherit.—Gen. 49:16-21; compare Genesis 30:3-12.

It seems that in the days of the kings one of the first acts of a usurper was to violate the concubines of the king, as did Absalom, who demonstrated the greatest disrespect for David and tried to strengthen his efforts to get the kingship by having relations with the ten concubines of his father David. (2 Sam. 16:21, 22) After King Solomon was enthroned, Adonijah, an older brother of Solomon, who had already made an attempt for the kingship, approached Solomon’s mother, Bath-sheba, saying: “You yourself well know that the kingship was to have become mine,” and then asked her to request of Solomon Abishag the Shunammite, who appears to have been viewed as a wife or a concubine of David. Solomon angrily answered: “Request also for him the kingship,” and then he ordered that Adonijah be put to death, indicating that he construed Adonijah’s request as an effort to get the kingdom.—1 Ki. 1:5-7; 2:13-25.

God did not see fit to restore the original standard of monogamy as he had established it in the garden of Eden until the appearance of Jesus Christ, but he did protect the concubine by legislation. Concubinage logically worked toward a more rapid increase of the population in Israel.—Matt. 19:5, 6; 1 Cor. 7:2; 1 Tim. 3:2; see MARRIAGE.

FIGURATIVE USE

The apostle Paul likens Jehovah to the husband of a free wife, the “Jerusalem above,” who is the “mother” of spirit-begotten Christians, as Abraham was husband to Sarah. He compares the relationship of Jehovah to the nation of Israel represented by its capital city Jerusalem to that of a husband and a concubine. Through the Law covenant Jehovah was ‘married’ to Jerusalem as a “servant girl,” a ‘concubine,’ analogous to the marriage of Abraham to the slave girl and concubine Hagar.—Gal. 4:22-29; compare Isaiah 54:1-6.

CONGREGATION

A group of people gathered together for a particular purpose or activity. The Hebrew word usually rendered “congregation” in the New World Translation is qa·halʹ, which is from a root meaning “assemble together.” It is frequently used for an organized body, being found in the expressions “congregation of Israel” (Lev. 16:17; Josh. 8:35; 1 Ki. 8:14), “congregation of the true God” (Neh. 13:1), “congregation of Jehovah” (Deut. 23:2, 3; Mic. 2:5), and “Jehovah’s congregation.” (Num. 20:4; 1 Chron. 28:8) Qa·halʹ designates various kinds of human gatherings, as for religious purposes (Deut. 9:10; 18:16; 1 Ki. 8:65; Ps. 22:25; 107:32), for dealing with civil affairs (1 Ki. 12:3) and for warfare. (1 Sam. 17:47; Ezek. 16:40) In the book of Ecclesiastes Solomon is identified as the “congregator” (Heb., qo·heʹleth). (Eccl. 1:1, 12) As the king he congregated or assembled the people to the worship of Jehovah, one notable instance being when he gathered his subjects to the newly constructed temple in Jerusalem.—1 Ki. 8:1-5; 2 Chron. 5:2-6.

In the Christian Greek Scriptures the Greek word rendered “congregation” is ek·kle·siʹa, from which the English word “ecclesia” is derived. Ek·kle·siʹa comes from two Greek root words, ek, meaning “out,” and ka·leinʹ, meaning “to call.” Hence, it pertains to a group of persons called out or called together, either officially or unofficially. It is the word used with reference to the congregation of Israel at Acts 7:38 and is also employed for the “assembly” stirred up by the silversmith Demetrius against Paul and his associates in Ephesus. (Acts 19:23, 24, 29, 32, 41) Most often, however, it is used with reference to the Christian congregation. It is applied to the Christian congregation in general (1 Cor. 12:28), to a congregation in some city such as Jerusalem (Acts 8:1), Antioch (Acts 13:1) or Corinth (2 Cor. 1:1), or to a specific group meeting in someone’s home. (Rom. 16:5; Philem. 2) Accordingly, individual Christian congregations or “congregations of God” are also mentioned. (Acts 15:41; 1 Cor. 11:16) Some English versions use “church” in texts pertaining to the Christian congregation, as at 1 Corinthians 16:19. (AS; AV) Since many persons think of a “church” as a building for religious services rather than a congregation engaging in worship the rendering “church” can be misleading. The Greek word ek·kle·siʹa is employed in the Septuagint at times to translate the Hebrew word qa·halʹ, as at Psalm 22:22.

THE CONGREGATION OF ISRAEL

From the time of Moses onward, the nation of Israel was referred to as a congregation. Jehovah arranged for the congregation to be ruled, not democratically by the people, but theocratically, by God himself. To that end the nation was taken into the Law covenant. (Ex. 19:3-9; 24:6-8) As Moses was the mediator of that covenant, it could be said: “Moses laid as a command upon us a law, a possession of the congregation of Jacob.” (Deut. 33:4) Jehovah was their Judge, Statute-giver and King. (Isa. 33:22) Thus, the nation was a congregation of God and could be referred to as the “congregation of Jehovah” and “Jehovah’s congregation.”—Num. 16:3; 1 Chron. 28:8.

At times, the Hebrew word qa·halʹ (congregation) appears to be employed interchangeably with the Hebrew word ʽe·dhahʹ (assembly). (Num. 20:8, 10) ʽE·dhahʹ is from a root meaning “to appoint,” thus signifying a group assembled by appointment, and is frequently applied to the community of Israel, as in the expression “assembly of Israel.” (Ex. 12:3) In the nation of Israel those who actually constituted the Hebrew population made up the congregation (qa·halʹ; Num. 15:15), whereas the assembly (ʽe·dhahʹ) seems to have embraced both the Israelites and alien residents associated with them. (Ex. 12:19) So membership in the congregation, in an extended general application, seems to have included circumcised alien residents.—Num. 15:14-16.

However, there were exceptions as to membership in the “congregation of Jehovah.” No castrated man or one “having his male member cut off” could enter it, and illegitimate sons, male Ammonites and Moabites were barred therefrom “even to the tenth generation.” But sons born to Edomites and Egyptians “as the third generation” could “come for themselves into the congregation of Jehovah.” (Deut. 23:1-8) The exclusion of an illegitimate’s sons “to the tenth generation” upheld Jehovah’s law against adultery. (Ex. 20:14) And though the sexually mutilated were excluded from the “congregation of Jehovah,” such ones could draw comfort from words recorded by Isaiah, as found at Isaiah 56:1-7. Of course, individuals excluded from the “congregation of Jehovah” in ancient Israel had the possibility of coming under provisions and blessings Jehovah made for people of the nations in general.—Gen. 22:15-18.

Persons who were members of the congregation of Israel were shown mercy if they sinned by mistake. But they were cut off in death for doing something wrong deliberately. (Num. 15:27-31) For instance, an individual would be cut off from the congregation, and from life itself, for refusing to purify himself when he was ceremonially “unclean,” for eating some of the flesh of the communion sacrifice while in that condition, for partaking of fat of offerings, or blood, or eating holy things while “unclean.” (Num. 19:20; Lev. 7:21-27; 17:10, 14; 22:3) Persons were also cut off for working on the sabbath day (Ex. 31:14), for giving their offspring to Molech, for turning to spirit mediums and professional foretellers of events, for sexual immorality, and for not ‘afflicting’ themselves on the annual atonement day.—Lev. 20:1-6, 17, 18; 23:27-30; see also Exodus 30:31-33; Leviticus 17:3, 4, 8, 9; 18:29; 19:5-8.

While individuals made up the congregation of Israel, the nation itself was comprised of tribes, families and households. The incident involving Achan seems to show this organizational arrangement, for in this case Israel came forward, first tribe by tribe, then family by family, next household by household and finally able-bodied man by able-bodied man, until Achan was picked as the wrongdoer.—Josh. 7:10-19.

In Israel responsible representatives often acted in behalf of the people. (Ezra 10:14) Thus, “chieftains of the tribes” made presentations after the setting up of the tabernacle. (Num. 7:1-11) Also, representatively attesting by seal the “trustworthy arrangement” of Nehemiah’s day were priests, Levites and the “heads of the people.” (Neh. 9:38–10:27) During Israel’s wilderness trek there were “chieftains of the assembly, summoned ones of the meeting, men of fame,” two hundred and fifty of whom joined Korah, Dathan, Abiram and On in congregating themselves against Moses and Aaron. (Num. 16:1-3) In keeping with divine direction, Moses selected seventy of the older men of Israel who were officers to help him carry “the load of the people” that he was unable to bear alone. (Num. 11:16, 17, 24, 25) Leviticus 4:15 mentions “the older men of the assembly,” and it appears that the representatives of the people were the nation’s older men, its heads, its judges, and its officers.—Num. 1:4, 16; Josh. 23:2; 24:1.

In the wilderness, two silver trumpets were used to convene the assembly and to break up the camp. Then the assembly would keep their appointment with Moses at the entrance of the tent of meeting if blasts were blown on both of these trumpets. If just one was sounded, “the chieftains as heads of the thousands of Israel” would put in an appearance there. (Num. 10:1-4) Sometimes kings convened gatherings (1 Ki. 8:5; 2 Chron. 20:4, 5), Hezekiah using runners to summon the people to Jerusalem for the grand Passover celebration of his day.—2 Chron. 30:1, 2, 10-13.

In later times, considerable power was wielded by the judicial body known as the Sanhedrin, composed of seventy-one members, the high priest and seventy other principal men of the nation, the “assembly of older men.”—Matt. 26:59; Luke 22:66.

During the Jews’ Babylonian captivity, or shortly thereafter, synagogues came into general use as buildings where the Jews congregated. In time, synagogues were established in various places, Jesus imparting instruction at the synagogue in Nazareth for example. (Luke 4:16-21) Synagogues were actually schools where the Scriptures were read and taught and were places of prayer and the giving of praise to God.—Acts 15:21; see SYNAGOGUE.

The congregation of Israel was in a unique position. Moses reminded them: “You are a holy people to Jehovah your God. It is you Jehovah your God has chosen to become his people, a special property, out of all the peoples that are on the surface of the ground.” (Deut. 7:6) But the Jewish congregation ceased to be the congregation of God, being cast off due to rejecting his Son.—Acts 4:24-28; 13:23-29; Matt. 21:43; 23:37, 38; Luke 19:41-44.

THE CHRISTIAN CONGREGATION OF GOD

Prior to the rejection of the Jewish nation and the end of its position as the congregation of God, Jesus Christ identified himself as the “rock-mass” upon which he would build what he termed “my congregation.” (Matt. 16:18) This is as Peter, to whom he spoke, understood matters, for the apostle later identified Jesus as the figurative “stone” that was rejected by men but was “chosen, precious, with God” and as the “foundation cornerstone” on which one could rest his faith without disappointment. (1 Pet. 2:4-6; Ps. 118:22; Isa. 28:16) Paul also definitely identified Jesus Christ as the foundation upon which the Christian congregation is built. (Eph. 2:19-22; 1 Cor. 3:11) And, belonging to Jehovah as it does, it is appropriately referred to as “the congregation of God.”—Acts 20:28; Gal. 1:13.

This Christian congregation (Gr., ek·kle·siʹa) founded on Christ, also has him as its head. Thus it is stated: “He [God] also subjected all things under his feet, and made him head over all things to the congregation, which is his body, the fullness of him who fills up all things in all.” (Eph. 1:22, 23; see also Colossians 1:18.) This congregation is referred to as “the congregation of the first-born who have been enrolled in the heavens,” the full number of which, under Christ the head, is 144,000. (Heb. 12:23; Rev. 7:4) These called-out ones are “bought from among mankind” to carry out a special work here on earth and then to be with Christ in heaven as his Bride. As there were requirements for membership in the Hebrew congregation of God, so there are requisites for membership in the Christian “congregation of God.” Those making it up are spiritual virgins who keep following the Lamb, Jesus Christ, no matter where he goes, “and no falsehood was found in their mouths; they are without blemish.”—Rev. 14:1-5.

While the Christian congregation of God took the place of the congregation of Israel at Pentecost of 33 C.E., when holy spirit was poured out on Jesus’ followers in Jerusalem, the first prospective members of that congregation were chosen shortly after Jesus’ baptism, at the beginning of his ministry on earth. (Acts 2:1-4; John 1:35-43) From among his early followers Jesus selected twelve apostles (Luke 6:12-16), and later he chose Saul of Tarsus, who became “an apostle to the nations.” (Acts 9:1-19; Rom. 11:13) The twelve faithful apostles of the Lamb Jesus Christ constitute secondary foundations of the Christian congregation.—Rev. 21:1, 2, 14.

The members of the Christian congregation of God are selected by Jehovah. (Rom. 8:30; 2 Thess. 2:13) The first members thereof were called out from the rejected Jewish congregation, which had not accepted God’s Son as their Messiah. However, beginning with Cornelius in 36 C.E., members of the Christian congregation were also called out from the nations in general, so that Paul could say: “There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither slave nor freeman, there is neither male nor female; for you are all one person in union with Christ Jesus.” (Gal. 3:28; Acts 10:34, 35; Rom. 10:12; Eph. 2:11-16) Whereas the Law covenant mediated by Moses and under which the congregation of Israel was regulated was fulfilled by Christ and taken out of the way by Jehovah God (Matt. 5:17; 2 Cor. 3:14; Col. 2:13, 14), members of the Christian congregation of God partake of the benefits of the new covenant mediated by the Greater Moses, Jesus Christ. (Matt. 26:28; Heb. 12:22-24; Acts 3:19-23) Also, while the priests and kings of Israel were anointed with oil (Ex. 30:22-30; 2 Ki. 9:6), those chosen by God to be members of the Christian congregation are anointed with holy spirit (2 Cor. 1:21, 22; 1 John 2:20) and are adopted by Jehovah God as his sons.—Eph. 1:5.

Basically the Hebrew congregation was composed of natural Israelites. Persons comprising the anointed Christian congregation of God are spiritual Israelites, forming the tribes of spiritual Israel. (Rev. 7:4-8) Inasmuch as the majority of the natural Israelites rejected Jesus Christ, “not all who spring from Israel are really ‘Israel,’” that is, spiritual Israel. (Rom. 9:6-9) And, regarding the Christian congregation of God comprised of spiritual Jews, Paul stated: “He is not a Jew who is one on the outside, nor is circumcision that which is on the outside upon the flesh. But he is a Jew who is one on the inside, and his circumcision is that of the heart by spirit.”—Rom. 2:28, 29.

Usually when the Christian Greek Scriptures mention “the congregation” in a general sense reference is being made to the 144,000 members thereof, the anointed followers of Christ exclusive of Jesus himself. (Eph. 5:32; Heb. 12:23, 24) However, the inspired application of David’s words recorded at Psalm 22:22 to Jesus Christ at Hebrews 2:12 shows that the term “congregation” can be applied in a more inclusive way, so as to include the head thereof, Jesus Christ. Partly quoting David, the writer to the Hebrews stated: “For both he who is sanctifying and those who are being sanctified all stem from one, and for this cause he [Jesus Christ] is not ashamed to call them ‘brothers;’ as he says: ‘I will declare your name to my brothers; in the middle of the congregation I will praise you with song.’” (Heb. 2:11, 12) Like David, who was a member of the congregation of Israel in the middle of which he praised Jehovah, Jesus Christ can, in this instance, be viewed as one of the spiritual congregation, the others in it being called his “brothers.” (Compare Matthew 25:39, 40.) David belonged to the Israelite congregation of Jehovah God and Jesus Christ was also a member of it while on earth, preaching amidst its members. A remnant of that congregation became part of Jesus’ congregation.

ORGANIZATION OF THE CHRISTIAN CONGREGATION

While Christian congregations of God were established in various places, they did not function independently of one another. Instead, they all recognized the authority of the Christian governing body at Jerusalem. This governing body was comprised of the apostles and older men of the Jerusalem congregation, there being no rival bodies elsewhere seeking to supervise the congregation. It was to the faithful Christian governing body of the first century C.E. that the issue of circumcision was submitted for consideration. When the governing body made its decision, as directed by the holy spirit, that decision was accepted and became binding upon all Christian congregations, these willingly submitting to it.—Acts 15:22-31.

The Christian body in Jerusalem sent out traveling representatives. Thus, Paul and others delivered the governing body’s decision just mentioned, it being stated: “Now as they traveled on through the cities they would deliver to those there for observance the decrees that had been decided upon by the apostles and older men who were in Jerusalem.” Concerning the effects produced, it is said: “Therefore, indeed, the congregations continued to be made firm in the faith and to increase in number from day to day.” (Acts 16:4, 5) Earlier, when the apostles in Jerusalem “heard that Samaria had accepted the word of God, they dispatched Peter and John to them; and these went down and prayed for them to get holy spirit.”—Acts 8:14, 15.

The individual congregations adhered closely to the direction of the Christian governing body, which supervised the appointment of older men to serve in the various congregations. (Titus 1:1, 5) So it was that, as directed by the Christian governing body under the influence of the holy spirit, an overseer was appointed for each congregation, as well as assistants, ministerial servants. The men placed in these positions of trust and responsibility had to meet specific qualifications. (1 Tim. 3:1-13; Titus 1:5-9) Traveling representatives of the governing body, such as Paul, followed Christ and set a fine example to be imitated. (1 Cor. 11:1; Phil. 4:9) In fact, all of those in the position of spiritual shepherds were to become “examples to the flock” (1 Pet. 5:2, 3), were to show loving concern for individuals within the congregation (1 Thess. 2:5-12) and were to be of real assistance to those spiritually sick. (Gal. 6:1; Jas. 5:13-16) However, for a further consideration of their privileges and responsibilities, please see OVERSEER and MINISTER.

Hence, just as Jehovah organized the congregation of Israel under older men, heads, judges and officers (Josh. 23:2), He saw to the supervision of the Christian congregation by having older men appointed to positions of trust therein. (Acts 14:23) And, as responsible men sometimes acted representatively for the entire congregation of Israel, as in judicial matters (Deut. 16:18), God arranged for each individual Christian congregation to be similarly represented in such matters by responsible men placed in positions of authority by the holy spirit. (Acts 20:28; 1 Cor. 5:1-5) However, should difficulties develop between members of the Christian congregation of God, the words of Jesus Christ recorded at Matthew 18:15-17 (spoken before the Jewish congregation of God had been rejected by Jehovah and thus initially applicable to it) served as a basis for settling or handling such problems.

Jehovah God has set the members in the spiritual “body” of Christ “just as he pleased.” And Paul stated: “God has set the respective ones in the congregation, first, apostles; second, prophets; third, teachers; then powerful works; then gifts of healings; helpful services, abilities to direct, different tongues.” Not all performed the same functions, but all were needed by the Christian congregation. (1 Cor. 12:12-31) Paul explained that the supplying of apostles, prophets, evangelizers, shepherds and teachers for the Christian congregation was “with a view to the training of the holy ones, for ministerial work, for the building up of the body of the Christ, until we all attain to the oneness in the faith and in the accurate knowledge of the Son of God, to a full-grown man, to the measure of growth that belongs to the fullness of the Christ.”—Eph. 4:11-16.

The congregation of Israel was provided with the laws of God and was made to appreciate that “not by bread alone does man live but by every expression of Jehovah’s mouth does man live.” (Deut. 8:1-3) Jesus Christ also recognized that man could not live on bread alone “but on every utterance coming forth through Jehovah’s mouth.” (Matt. 4:1-4) Hence, adequate provision has been made for the Christian congregation to have needed spiritual food, Christ himself mentioning the “slave” through whom such food is dispensed to Christian “domestics.” Jesus, as part of his prophecy concerning his own second presence and “the conclusion of the system of things,” showed that, on arriving, the “master” would appoint this “faithful and discreet slave” “over all his belongings.”—Matt. 24:3, 45-47.

Gatherings for the worship of Jehovah and a consideration of his law were important in the congregation of Israel. (Deut. 31:12; Neh. 8:1-8) Similarly, meetings for the worship of Jehovah and a study of the Scriptures are an essential feature of the Christian congregation of God, the writer to the Hebrews admonishing the recipients of his letter not to be forsaking such gathering of themselves together. (Heb. 10:24, 25) Activities in the synagogues of later Jewish history included the reading and teaching of the Scriptures, the offering of prayers and the giving of praise to God. Such features were carried over into places of Christian assembly, though without the ritualistic accretions that had eventually developed in synagogue services. In the synagogue no sacerdotal class was set apart, sharing in Scripture reading and exposition being open to any devout male Jew. Comparably, no clergy-laity or similar division existed within the early Christian congregation. Of course, neither therein nor in the synagogue did the women teach or exercise authority over the men.—1 Tim. 2:11, 12.

The maintaining of proper order at meetings of the Christian congregation of God harmonized with the fact that Jehovah, who made provision for the congregational arrangement among Christ’s followers, is a “God, not of disorder, but of peace.” This orderliness also worked to the great spiritual benefit of all in attendance.—1 Cor. 14:26-35, 40; see ASSEMBLY.

CONIAH

See JEHOIACHIN.

CONJURER

(conʹjur·er).

The Hebrew and Aramaic word ʼash·shaphʹ (rendered “astrologers,” AV) is properly defined conjurer, necromancer, enchanter. (Brown, Driver, Briggs’ Lexicon, pp. 80, 1083; Koehler-Baumgartner Lexicon, pp. 95, 1055) “To conjure” means “to swear together” by oath or invocation, as when one solemnly calls up or calls upon so-called spirits of the dead. A necromancer literally means a diviner of the dead, one who attempts to foretell and control future events through communication with the dead. ʼAsh·shaphʹ is from a root that C. F. Keil defines as “to breathe, to blow, to whisper; for they practiced their incantations by movements of the breath.”

Any manner of purported communication with the dead was condemned by God. “And in case they should say to you people: ‘Apply to the spiritistic mediums or to those having a spirit of prediction who are chirping and making utterances in low tones,’ is it not to its God that any people should apply? Should there be application to dead persons in behalf of living persons?” (Isa. 8:19) Though outlawed in Israel, the “mistress of spirit mediumship in En-dor” whom unfaithful King Saul visited was one who contacted the demons as a conjurer of the dead.—1 Sam. 28:7; Lev. 20:27.

Conjurers flourished particularly among the Babylonians. Concerning that people’s ideas about the dead and their ability to communicate with departed ones, Morris Jastrow, Jr., in his book The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 559, 560, writes: “The stem underlying Shuâlu [the Babylonian place of the dead] signifies ‘to ask.’ Shuâlu is a place of inquiry, and the inquiry meant is of the nature of a religious oracle. The name, accordingly, is an indication of the power accorded the dead, to aid the living by furnishing them with answers to questions, just as the gods furnish oracles through the mediation of the priests. . . . The dead not only dwell near the gods, but, like the gods, they can direct the affairs of mankind. Their answers to questions put to them have divine justification.”

When Daniel and his three companions were taken captive to Babylon in the seventh century B.C.E., and after being given a special three-year schooling in all the wisdom of the Babylonians, they proved to be “ten times better than all the magic-practicing priests and the conjurers” in the realm.—Dan. 1:3-20.

Nebuchadnezzar, therefore, called in all branches of diviners, not the conjurers alone, and demanded that they first reveal the dream he had had and then give the interpretation. (Dan. 2:1-3, 27) The king was suspicious of them, for he said: “It is a lying and wrong word that you have agreed to say before me.” He also was well aware of their stalling for time, hoping that circumstances would change. So, in order that Nebuchadnezzar might have some guarantee that his wise men were able to give a true interpretation to his awesome vision, he insisted that they first tell him the dream. “Tell me the very dream,” the king declared, “and I shall know that you can show the very interpretation of it.” (Dan. 2:4-9) The conjurers and their fellow diviners failed to come up with the answer. Fortunately, Daniel learned of the king’s edict to kill off all Babylon’s wise men