symbol of the magistrate’s authority the lictor in a Roman colony carried the fasces. This consisted of a bundle of elm or birch rods bound around the handle of an ax, with the blade of the ax projecting from the side of the bundle.

Some of the duties of the Roman constables were police-like in their nature but they differed from modern-day policemen in that the constables were attached strictly to the magistrate, with the responsibility of being in constant attendance upon him. They were not directly subject to the call of the people but only to the orders of their magistrate.

When the magistrate appeared in public his constables announced his approach, cleared his passage through the crowd and saw that he received the respect due his rank. They mounted guard at his house. They delivered magisterial messages, ordered offenders before the magistrate and seized lawbreakers, binding them and scourging them.

The constables were technically nominated for one year, but in actuality they often served longer. The majority of them were freedmen. Roman constables were exempted from military service and were given a salary for their service.

Since Philippi was a Roman colony, it was governed by imperial civil magistrates whose constables did their bidding in beating Paul and Silas. Paul refused to accept relief from the constables but demanded that their superiors, the civil magistrates, acknowledge the wrong done.—Acts 16:19-40; see MAGISTRATE.

CONTRIBUTION

The gift, money, or assistance, and so forth, given by a person or persons to another or others. A contribution may or may not involve material giving. Paul thanked God because of the contribution the Philippian Christians made to the good news. In addition to their personal part in spreading the good news, they had materially assisted Paul and probably others, thus loyally supporting the preaching of the good news in this way too.—Phil. 1:3-5; 4:16-18.

The Israelites were privileged to make contributions for erecting and equipping structures for true worship. They donated materials for the tabernacle and its furnishings (Ex. 25:1-9; 35:4-9), “a voluntary offering to Jehovah” that had to be halted because the things given “proved to be enough for all the work to be done, and more than enough.” (Ex. 35:20-29; 36:3-7) King David’s contributions for the construction of the prospective temple included his “special property” of gold and silver, to the amount of more than $125,000,000. In turn, the princes and the chiefs of the people happily contributed well over $200,000,000, in gold and silver, besides copper, iron and stones.—1 Chron. 29:1-9.

Some contributions were required under the Law. When Moses took a census of the Israelites, each male twenty years old and upward was to give a ransom for his soul, “a half shekel [probably about 24 cents] by the shekel of the holy place.” It was “Jehovah’s contribution” so as to make atonement for their souls and “in behalf of the service of the tent of meeting.” (Ex. 30:11-16) According to the Jewish historian Josephus, as well as the Jewish Mishnah, this “sacred tax” was thereafter paid annually.—2 Chron. 24:6-10; Matt. 17:24; see TAXATION.

For the support of the Levites, the priestly tribe, God provided that the Israelites contribute “tenth parts” of the land’s produce. The Levites, in turn, contributed a tenth part to the high priest, to support him and his family. (Num. 18:26-28) Jehovah gave Aaron the high priest custody of the contributions the Israelites made to God, allowing him and his sons to partake of their offerings and of the oil, wine, grain and first ripe fruits of the land, which the people gave to Jehovah, as well as granting them portions of animal sacrifices. A tax from the spoils of war was given to the high priest as “Jehovah’s contribution,” and a portion of the spoils likewise went to the Levites.—Num. 31:1, 2, 28-30.

The Israelites made various offerings and sacrifices to Jehovah, some of which were specifically required by the Law. Others, however, were entirely voluntary, such as thanksgiving and vow offerings.—Lev. 7:15, 16; see OFFERINGS.

In the days of King Jehoash, a chest was placed at the gate of the house of Jehovah to receive contributions for extensive repair work on the temple. The princes and the people then rejoiced to bring in the “sacred tax,” with which it was possible to make the house of God strong, and to make temple utensils.—2 Chron. 24:4-14.

Non-Israelites also contributed to true worship. When Ezra and the Jewish remnant left Babylon for Jerusalem in 468 B.C.E. they carried with them silver, gold and utensils, a contribution to the house of God made by King Artaxerxes of Persia, his counselors and princes, and by Israelites in Babylon. These valuable articles were entrusted to the care of selected men during the journey.—Ezra 7:12-20; 8:24-30.

In performing the ministry, Jesus Christ and his apostles accepted material aid that was contributed. (Luke 8:1-3) Christians in Macedonia and Achaia especially showed eagerness to assist their needy brothers, being “pleased to share up their things by a contribution to the poor of the holy ones in Jerusalem,” evidently by contributing money.—Rom. 15:26; see COLLECTION.

At Romans 15:26 and 2 Corinthians 9:13, the Greek word for “contribution” (koi·no·niʹa) may literally be viewed as meaning to “put fellowship into activity.” This same Greek word is used at Hebrews 13:16: “Do not forget the doing of good and the sharing of things with others, for with such sacrifices God is well pleased.”

It appears that many Jews and proselytes from other places who had become Christians during the time of Pentecost, 33 C.E., remained for a time in Jerusalem in order to learn more about the faith. That none might come to want, they contributed their belongings voluntarily so that “they had all things in common.” (Acts 4:32-37; compare Acts 5:1-4.) Later on, the Jerusalem congregation made a daily distribution of food to needy widows. (Acts 6:1-3) Paul gave instructions as to the use of contributed funds in caring for widows who were truly worthy of help.—1 Tim. 5:9, 10; see RELIEF.

There was no compulsion to make contributions in the early Christian congregation, about which Tertullian wrote: “Even if there is a chest of a sort, it is not made up of money paid in entrance-fees, as if religion were a matter of contract. Every man once a month brings some modest coin—or whenever he wishes, and only if he does wish, and if he can; for nobody is compelled; it is a voluntary offering.” (Apology, XXXIX, 5) An arrangement of this kind harmonized with Paul’s words: “Let each one do just as he has resolved in his heart, not grudgingly or under compulsion, for God loves a cheerful giver.”—2 Cor. 9:7.

The size of a contribution does not necessarily give a true picture of the giver’s generosity. Once Jesus Christ watched as persons deposited money in the temple’s treasury chests. Rich individuals dropped in many coins, but Jesus was impressed with the wholehearted generosity of a needy widow who dropped in only two small coins of very little value, saying: “This widow, although poor, dropped in more than they all did. For all these dropped in gifts out of their surplus, but this woman out of her want dropped in all the means of living she had.” (Luke 21:1-4; Mark 12:41-44) When it came to making contributions to aid poor fellow believers, Paul observed: “If the readiness is there first, it is especially acceptable according to what a person has, not according to what a person does not have.”—2 Cor. 8:12.

Although no one can actually enrich Jehovah, who owns all things (1 Chron. 29:14-17), contributing is a privilege that affords the worshiper opportunity to display his love for Jehovah. Contributions given, not for publicity or selfish motives, but with the proper attitude and to advance true worship bring happiness, along with God’s blessing. (Acts 20:35; Matt. 6:1-4; Prov. 3:9, 10) One can assure himself of a share in this happiness by setting aside something from his material belongings regularly for the support of true worship and the aid of deserving ones.—1 Cor. 16:1, 2.

Jehovah furnishes the best example of giving, for he has bestowed upon humanity “life and breath and all things” (Acts 17:25), he has given his only-begotten Son for mankind (John 3:16) and he enriches Christians for every sort of generosity. (2 Cor. 9:10-15) Indeed, “every good gift and every perfect present is from above, for it comes down from the Father of the celestial lights.”—Jas. 1:17; see GIFTS, PRESENTS.

CONVENTION

A gathering or meeting together of people for a specific purpose; an assembly. In the Scriptures the term “convention” is a translation of the Hebrew word miq·raʼʹ, meaning “a calling together” or “convoking.” An alternate rendering of this Hebrew word is “convocation.” Bearing out its basic meaning is its use at Numbers 10:2 to convey the thought of convening the assembly of Israel.

The “holy conventions” were scheduled as follows: (1) Every sabbath (Lev. 23:3); (2) the first and seventh days of the festival of unfermented cakes during Nisan, the first month (March-April) (Num. 28:18, 25; Lev. 23:6-8); (3) the festival of weeks or festival of harvest, later known as Pentecost, held in the third month, Sivan (May-June) (Lev. 23:15-21); (4) the first and tenth days of the seventh month, Ethanim or Tishri (September-October), the latter day being the day of atonement (Lev. 23:23-27; Num. 29:1, 7); (5) the first day of the festival of booths, which began on the fifteenth day of the seventh month, Ethanim or Tishri, also the day after that seven-day festival.—Lev. 23:33-36.

A unique feature of all of these “holy conventions” was that during them the people were to do no laborious work. For instance, the first and seventh days of the festival of unfermented cakes were “holy conventions,” concerning which Jehovah stated: “No work is to be done on them. Only what every soul needs to eat, that alone may be done for you.” (Ex. 12:15, 16) However, during “holy conventions” the priests were busy offering sacrifices to Jehovah (Lev. 23:37, 38), certainly no violation of any command against doing normal daily work. These occasions were not periods of idleness for the people in general either, but were times of great spiritual benefit. On the weekly sabbath day, the people met together for public worship and instruction. They were then edified by the public reading and explanation of God’s written Word, as in the later synagogues. (Acts 15:21) Therefore, while the people did not do laborious work during the sabbath day or the other “holy conventions,” they would then devote themselves to prayer and meditation on the Creator and his purposes.—See ASSEMBLY.

COOKING, COOKING UTENSILS

Cooking and baking in general were usually considered the duties of the women in the Hebrew household, but on certain occasions meals were prepared by men. (Gen. 18:6-8; 27:3-9, 14, 30, 31; 1 Sam. 8:13; 2 Sam. 13:8) When living in tents the Hebrews probably did most of their cooking outdoors. When settled in Canaan, living in stone houses, they did some cooking in the home, particularly during inclement weather. (Judg. 6:19; 2 Sam. 13:7-11) The bulk of the cooking done was for the evening meal, the major meal of the day. (Luke 14:12; Rev. 3:20) Nothing could be cooked on the regular sabbath day, for the Law forbade even the lighting of a fire.—Ex. 35:3.

The Hebrews used various utensils and pieces of equipment in preparing food. There was the hand mill, operated by the women of the household. (Deut. 24:6; Matt. 24:41; see MILL.) For spices or smaller quantities of grain the mortar and pestle sufficed. (Num. 11:8; see MORTAR, I.) Bread dough was mixed in a kneading trough (Ex. 12:34) and baked on a hearth or in an oven.—Ex. 8:3; 1 Chron. 9:31.

Forks were employed at the tabernacle and, later on, at the temple. (Ex. 27:3; 2 Chron. 4:16) Mention is made of a three-pronged fork used by the priests. (1 Sam. 2:12-14) Household cooks may have used a similar fork to take meat out of a pot. They had knives of various kinds to cut up meat for cooking. There is no Scriptural indication that they used knives and forks when eating.

Vessels designed for cooking were generally made of earthenware, although some of them were of copper, such being particularly mentioned in connection with the sanctuary. (Lev. 6:28) Among household cooking utensils were pots, round containers, varying considerably in size. Bronze cooking pots that stood on legs are depicted in Egyptian tomb paintings, and it is possible that the complaining Israelites in the wilderness had such vessels in mind when they spoke of “sitting by the pots of meat” in Egypt. (Ex. 16:3) The Hebrew word translated “pots” in this passage is the one generally used to designate the widemouthed pot, which might be used for washing (Ps. 60:8) or cooking. (2 Ki. 4:38-41; Ezek. 24:3-5) These came in varied sizes, from the average-sized one about twelve inches (c. 30:5 centimeters) in diameter on up to very large ones. Early specimens of this relatively shallow type of pot lacked handles, but during the time of the divided kingdom in Israel a two-handled variety came into use.

Narrow-mouthed cooking pots having one or two handles have been found. They were of more-or-less spherical shape, from about four to fourteen inches (c. 10.5 to 35.5 centimeters) in diameter.

The Israelites also possessed deep-fat kettles or deep pans and also griddles. Grain offerings were frequently prepared in these. (Lev. 2:5, 7; 7:9; 1 Chron. 23:29) Examples of earthenware griddles have been discovered at Gezer. These had small depressions, comparable to the waffle iron of today. Iron griddles were also in use.—Ezek. 4:1-3.

The Scriptures sometimes use cooking pots in a figurative sense. Jerusalem, which was due to be destroyed in 607 B.C.E., was likened to a widemouthed cooking pot, with its inhabitants as the flesh in it.—Ezek. 11:1-12; 24:6-14; see VESSELS.

COPPER

(Brass, Bronze).

A soft metal easily beaten and shaped into many forms. There is no evidence that the ancients had a secret method for hardening pure copper by tempering, but they knew how to harden the cutting edge of tools simply by cold hammering. When alloyed with other metals hardness is greatly increased. One such alloy is bronze, copper containing tin (ancient findings having from 2 to 18 percent tin). Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. (1 Cor. 13:1) In the Authorized Version the words “brass” and “steel” are usually mistranslations for “copper” or “bronze.”

Copper in the free state was not plentiful; metal-bearing ores consisting of oxides, carbonates or sulfides had to be smelted to release the metallic copper. Copper mines have been located in the Wadi Arabah, that arid part of the Rift Valley that extends S from the Dead Sea to the Gulf of Aqabah at the eastern head of the Red Sea. (Job 28:2-4) Solomon exploited the copper deposits near Succoth in Palestine proper, which deposits Moses anticipated in describing the Promised Land. (Deut. 8:9) There large castings were made in clay molds. (1 Ki. 7:14-46; 2 Chron. 4:1-18) Copper was found in abundance on Cyprus. The Bible also speaks of Javan, Tubal and Meshech as sources of copper.—Ezek. 27:13.

Copper and its alloys had many varied and practical