Christian race with determination, the apostle informing them: “The way I am running is not uncertainly; the way I am directing my blows is so as not to be striking the air.”—1 Cor. 9:24-27.

Paul arrived in Corinth about 50 C.E. Initially he gave a talk in the synagogue every sabbath “and would persuade Jews and Greeks,” the Greeks in this case evidently being proselytes to the Jews’ religion. (Acts 18:1-4) However, after encountering opposition and abusive speech among those in the synagogue, the apostle turned his attention to “people of the nations,” the Gentiles in Corinth, and many “began to believe and be baptized.” Told by the Lord in a vision, “I have many people in this city,” the apostle remained there for a year and six months “teaching among them the word of God.” (Acts 18:5-11) Because Paul had been instrumental in establishing a Christian congregation in Corinth, he could say to them: “Though you may have ten thousand tutors in Christ, you certainly do not have many fathers; for in Christ Jesus I have become your father through the good news.”—1 Cor. 4:15.

FIRST CORINTHIANS

Time and place, and reasons for writing

During his third missionary tour Paul spent some time in Ephesus. (Acts 19:1) Probably during the last year of his stay there, the apostle received disturbing news about conditions in the Corinthian congregation. Paul had been told “by those of the house of Chloe” that dissensions existed among the Corinthians. (1 Cor. 1:11) Stephanas, Fortunatus and Achaicus had also come from Corinth and may have provided some information about the situation there. (1 Cor. 16:17, 18) Also, Paul had received a letter of inquiry from the Christian congregation in Corinth. (1 Cor. 7:1) Hence, out of deep regard for the spiritual welfare of his fellow believers there, Paul wrote this first letter to the Christian congregation in Corinth, about 55 C.E. That Ephesus was the place of composition is made certain by Paul’s words recorded at 1 Corinthians 16:8: “But I am remaining in Ephesus until the festival of Pentecost.”

In the introduction to First Corinthians Paul mentions an associate, Sosthenes, who may have penned the letter as dictated by Paul. This is likely, since toward its conclusion we read: “Here is my greeting, Paul’s, in my own hand.”—1 Cor. 1:1; 16:21.

OUTLINE OF CONTENTS

I. Encouragement (1:1-9)

II. Exhortation to unity (1:10–4:21)

A. Following men is foolish worldly wisdom, brings divisions (1:10-21)

B. Boast in God, who supplies all things through Christ, not in men (1:22–4:21)

1. Wisdom of God taught to holy ones by God’s spirit (chap. 2)

2. Spiritual building work to be tested, inferior work destroyed (chap. 3)

3. God’s dealing with apostles as “subordinates of Christ” reveals foolishness of being puffed up with worldly wisdom (chap. 4)

III. Cleaning out immorality (5:1–6:20)

A. Expelling the incestuous man (5:1-13)

B. Brother should not take brother to worldly court (6:1-8)

C. Spiritual or moral uncleanness defiles God’s temple, prevents entering Kingdom (6:9-20)

1. Fornication makes member of Christ’s body one flesh with harlot

2. Fornication a sin against one’s body

IV. Marriage and singleness (7:1-40)

A. Sexual due of marriage to be rendered, but with consideration (7:1-7)

B. Marriage better course if passion inflames one (7:8, 9)

C. Christian not to depart from unbelieving mate (7:10-16)

1. Family merit to mate and children

2. May eventually help mate to accept truth

D. Not necessary to change one’s status when becoming Christian (7:17-35)

1. Circumcised or uncircumcised, single or married, free or slave

2. Remaining single gives more freedom for full devotion to God

E. Proper to marry, but marry “only in the Lord” (7:36-40)

V. Consideration for conscience and circumstances of brothers (8:1–10:33)

A. Love superior to knowledge (8:1-3)

B. Matter of eating food offered to idols (8:4-13)

C. Right of minister to receive material help; Paul did not exercise this right (9:1-27)

D. Warning against complacency, immorality, idolatry (10:1-22)

E. All things lawful, but not all things build up (10:23-33)

VI. Congregational order (11:1–14:40)

A. Headship (11:1-16)

B. Lord’s evening meal (11:17-34)

C. Gifts of the spirit (12:1-31)

D. The surpassing way of love (13:1-13)

E. Decency and arrangement in congregational meetings (14:1-40)

VII. The resurrection (15:1-58)

A. Christ’s resurrection a guarantee (15:1-34)

B. The physical body and the spiritual body (15:35-49)

C. Immortality and incorruption (15:50-58)

VIII. General exhortation, salutations, commendation of faithful brothers (16:1-24)

SECOND CORINTHIANS

Time and place of writing

Paul wrote his second letter to the Corinthians probably during the late summer or early autumn of 55 C.E. The apostle had written the first letter in Ephesus, where he probably stayed as planned, until Pentecost of that year, or longer. (1 Cor. 16:8) Paul then departed for Troas, where he was disappointed in not meeting Titus, who had been sent to Corinth to assist in the collection for the holy ones in Judea. So Paul proceeded to Macedonia, where Titus joined him with a report on the Corinthians’ reaction to his first letter. (2 Cor. 2:12, 13; 7:5-7) Paul then wrote the second letter to them from Macedonia, evidently dispatching it by the hand of Titus. Then, after a few months, his efforts to visit Corinth materialized. So Paul actually visited the Corinthians twice. After his first visit, at which time he established the congregation, he made a plan for a second visit, which failed. But “the third time” that he planned or got “ready” he was successful, for he was able to see them again in 56 C.E. (2 Cor. 1:15; 12:14; 13:1) During this second visit in Corinth he wrote his letter to the Romans.

Reasons for writing

Titus brought Paul a favorable report. The first letter to the Corinthians had awakened in them sadness in a godly way, repentance, earnestness, a desire to clear themselves, indignation fear and a righting of the wrong. Paul responded in his second letter commending them for their favorable reception and application of counsel, urging them to “kindly forgive and comfort” the repentant man they had evidently expelled from the congregation. (2 Cor. 7:8-12; 2:1-11; compare 1 Corinthians 5:1-5.) Paul also wanted to encourage them to proceed further with the relief work for their needy fellow believers in Judea. (2 Cor. 8:1-15) Then, too, there were persons in the congregation who continued to challenge Paul’s position and authority as an apostle, making it necessary for him to defend his apostolic position; really, it was not for himself, but “it was for God,” that is, to save the congregation that belonged to God, that Paul spoke very strongly in his letter, and ‘boasted’ of his credentials as an apostle.—2 Cor. 5:12, 13; 10:7-12; 11:16-20, 30-33; 12:11-13.

OUTLINE OF CONTENTS

I. Paul’s attestation of sincerity and love for the Corinthians (1:1–7:16)

A. Reason for not visiting a second time until now (1:15-24)

B. His concern for their welfare (2:1-13)

1. Admonishes forgiveness of man previously rebuked, so that they will not become harsh and unforgiving toward repentant ones

2. Paul’s unrest in spirit because of not finding Titus at Troas

C. Paul and his associates no peddlers of God’s word, but adequately qualified ministers of the new covenant (2:14–7:16)

1. Corinthians are letter of recommendation written on hearts (3:1-3)

2. Paul and associates have freeness of speech from Jehovah the Spirit and reflect his glory (3:4–4:6)

3. Although enduring much, as earthen vessels, they continue doing everything possible to carry out commission as “ambassadors substituting for Christ” (4:7–6:10)

4. With widened hearts they appeal to the Corinthians to “widen out” in their affections (6:11–7:4)

a. Paul and associates have set proper example in love

b. Corinthians should respond by separateness from unbelievers and from every uncleanness

5. Paul’s great comfort at report of response to first letter—their sadness, repentance, righting of the wrong (7:5-16)

II. Exhortation to help distressed brothers in Judea (8:1–9:15)

A. Macedonians set a good example (8:1-9)

B. Paul appreciates Corinthians’ readiness on this point; sends Titus and other faithful brothers to assist in the arrangements (8:10-24)

C. Give from the heart; Jehovah the Supplier will multiply the products of such righteousness (9:1-10)

D. Their generosity will result in mutual love and thanks and glory to God on part of those assisted (9:11-15)

III. Argument against troublesome false apostles (10:1–12:21)

A. Paul will use spiritual weapons against them to bring every thought of the Corinthians in obedience to the Christ (10:1-6)

B. Answer to opposers as to Paul’s being “weak,” ‘in territory belonging to them,’ “inferior,” “unskilled in speech,” “unreasonable,” and their claim that he proved he is not an apostle like they are when he humbled himself by doing some secular work for support (10:7–12:21)

1. False apostles really ministers of Satan (11:12-15)

2. They take what the brothers have, exalt selves over them, ‘strike them in the face,’ and boast unreasonably over fleshly connections (11:16-20)

3. Paul equal in genealogy, superior in marks of persecution for Christ, in care for the congregations, visions and signs of apostleship (11:21–12:21)

a. Vision of paradise

b. Portents and powerful works

C. Coming second time after previous attempt (13:1-14)

1. Hopes to find them in better spirit; if necessary he will take strong action

2. Prays for their well-being; explains that he wrote in this strong way to restore them, bring unity

LIGHT SHED ON SCRIPTURES PREVIOUSLY WRITTEN

Paul fortified his arguments by use of the Hebrew Scriptures in his inspired letters to the Corinthians. When exposing the foolishness of worldly wisdom as displayed by the false apostles he proved the importance of getting the superior wisdom of God by pointing out what the psalmist had said to a generation centuries before, that “the thoughts of men . . . are as an exhalation” (Ps. 94:11; 1 Cor. 3:20), and by asking what Isaiah had asked the rebellious Jews: “Who has taken the proportions of the spirit of Jehovah, and who . . . can make him know anything?” (Isa. 40:13; 1 Cor. 2:16) Paul proved that the Christian minister has a right to receive material aid by showing that Deuteronomy 25:4, “You must not muzzle a bull while it is threshing,” really was written primarily for the ministers’ sakes. (1 Cor. 9:9, 10) He demonstrated that God had long ago promised a resurrection, by calling on the statements at Isaiah 25:8 and Hosea 13:14, about swallowing up death. (1 Cor. 15:54, 55) Additionally, he shed much light on the Lord’s evening meal by his detailed discussion of Jesus’ words spoken at the time He established the observance.—Luke 22:19, 20; 1 Cor. 11:23-34.

Paul demonstrated what God’s attitude had always been as to spiritual cleanness by quoting from or alluding to Deuteronomy 17:7; Leviticus 26:11, 12; Isaiah 43:6; 52:11 and Hosea 1:10. (1 Cor. 5:13; 2 Cor. 6:14-18) He showed that the matter of material giving had not been overlooked by God’s servants in the past and that the generous Christian is viewed favorably by Jehovah. (Ps. 112:9; 2 Cor. 9:9) And he indicated that the principle in the Law of establishing every matter at the mouth of two or three witnesses applies in the Christian congregation. (Deut. 19:15; 2 Cor. 13:1) These and other references to scriptures written beforehand illustrate these texts and clarify their application for us.—See the book “All Scripture Is Inspired of God and Beneficial,” pp. 208-216.

CORMORANT

(Cor’mo·rant) [Heb., sha·lakhʹ, plunger].

This bird appears only in the list of unclean birds under the Mosaic law, a list that prohibits the eating of birds most of which basically are birds of prey and carrion eaters, although there appear to be exceptions, such as the hoopoe and the swan. (Lev. 11:17; Deut. 14:17) The verb from which the name is drawn means “to throw, fling or cast”; thus the Egyptian fishers at the Nile are de-scribed as “casting [from Heb., sha·lakhʹ] fishhooks” into the river. (Isa. 19:8) The translators of the Greek Septuagint understood the bird to be the ka·ta·raʹktes, the Greek name of a bird that dives into the water and swims in pursuit of fish, while the Latin Vulgate uses mergulus (the “diver”) to indicate the bird. It, therefore seems evident that some fish-eating, diving bird is represented by the Hebrew term, and most translations consider the cormorant to be the most likely type, since it is quite common in Palestine, particularly along the Mediterranean coast and also in certain inland