began their march out of Egypt was Nisan 14, 1513 B.C.E., after celebrating the Passover the night previously. (The same calendar day, for the Jews counted the day as running from evening to evening.) (Ex. 12:2, 6, 7) This would seem to indicate that Abraham entered Canaan on Nisan 14, 1943 B.C.E., and evidently that is when the Abrahamic covenant took effect God appeared to Abraham again after he had traveled into Canaan as far as Shechem and enlarged on the promise, saying, “To your seed I am going to give this land,” thereby giving an indication of the connection of this covenant with the promise in Eden, and revealing that the “seed” would take a human course, that is, would run through a human line of descent. (Gen. 12:6, 7) Other enlargements by Jehovah were later expressed, as recorded at Genesis 13:14-17; 15:18; 17:2-8, 19; 22:15-18.

The covenant promises were passed on to Abraham’s posterity through Isaac (Gen. 26:2-4) and Jacob. (Gen. 28:13-15; 35:11, 12) The apostle Paul says that Christ (as primary one) and those in union with Christ are the real “seed.”—Gal. 3:16, 28, 29.

God revealed the purpose and accomplishments of the Abrahamic covenant, saying that through Abraham the seed of promise would come; this seed would possess the gate of his enemies; Abraham’s seed through Isaac would number many, uncountable to man at that time; Abraham’s name would be made great; the seed would possess the Promised Land; all families of the earth would bless themselves by means of the seed. (See above texts from Genesis.) There was a literal fulfillment of these things, which were typical of the greater fulfillment through Christ. Paul gives additional information as to the symbolic and prophetic nature of the terms of this covenant when he says that Abraham, Sarah, Isaac, Hagar and Ishmael enacted a symbolic drama.—Gal. 4:21-31.

The Abrahamic covenant is “a covenant to time indefinite.” Its terms require that it extend on until the destruction of all God’s enemies and the blessing of the families of the earth have been accomplished.—Gen. 17:7; 1 Cor. 15:23-26.

COVENANT OF CIRCUMCISION

The covenant of circumcision was made in 1919 B.C.E., when Abraham was 99 years of age. Jehovah made the covenant with Abraham and his natural seed; all males of the household, including slaves, were to be circumcised; anyone refusing was to be cut off from his people. (Gen. 17:9-14) Later, God stated that the alien resident who desired to eat the passover (one who wished to become a worshiper of Jehovah with Israel) would have to circumcise the males of his household. (Ex. 12:48, 49) Circumcision served as a seal of the righteousness Abraham had by faith while in the uncircumcised state, and as a physical sign of the covenant relationship of Abraham’s descendants through Jacob, with Jehovah. (Rom. 4:11, 12) God recognized circumcision until the ending of the Law covenant, in 33 C.E. (Rom. 2:25-28; 1 Cor. 7:19; Acts chap. 15) Even though physical circumcision was carried on under the Law, Jehovah repeatedly showed that he was more concerned with its symbolic significance, counseling Israel to ‘circumcise the foreskin of their hearts.’—Deut. 10:16; Lev. 26:41; Jer. 9:26; Acts 7:51.

LAW COVENANT

The Law covenant between Jehovah and the nation of natural Israel was made in the third month after leaving Egypt, in 1513 B.C.E. (Ex. 19:1) It was a national covenant. One born a natural Israelite was, by birth, in the Law covenant, and was thus in this special relationship with Jehovah. The Law was in the form of a code, arranged in an orderly way, its statutes grouped together. The Law, transmitted through angels by the hand of a mediator, Moses, was made operative by a sacrifice of animals at Mount Sinai. (Gal. 3:19; Heb. 2:2; 9:16-20) At that time Moses sprinkled half the blood of the sacrificed animals on the altar, then he read the book of the covenant to the people, who agreed to be obedient. Afterward he sprinkled the blood upon the book and upon the people. (Ex. 24:3-8) Under the Law, a priesthood was established in the house of Aaron, of the family of Kohath of the tribe of Levi. (Num. 3:1-3, 10) The high priesthood passed by descent from Aaron to his sons, Eleazar succeeding Aaron and Phinehas succeeding Eleazar, and so forth.—Num. 20:25-28; Josh. 24:33; Judg. 20:27, 28.

The terms of the Law covenant were that if the Israelites kept the covenant they would be a people for the name of Jehovah, a kingdom of priests and a holy nation, with His blessing (Ex. 19:5, 6; Deut. 28:1-14); if they violated the covenant they would be cursed. (Deut. 28:15-68) Its purposes were: to make transgressions manifest (Gal. 3:19); to lead the Jews to Christ (Gal. 3:24); to serve for a shadow of the good things to come (Heb. 10:1; Col. 2:17); to protect the Jews from false, pagan religion and preserve the true worship of Jehovah; to protect the line of the seed of promise. Added to the covenant with Abraham (Gal. 3:17-19), it organized the natural seed-nation of Abraham through Isaac and Jacob.

The Law covenant extended benefits to others not of natural Israel, for they could become proselytes, getting circumcised, and could receive many of the Law’s benefits. (Ex. 12:48, 49) The Law covenant became “obsolete,” and was canceled on the basis of Christ’s death on the torture stake (Col. 2:14), the new covenant replacing it.—Heb. 7:12; 8:1, 2, 13; 9:15; Acts 2:1-4.

COVENANT WITH THE TRIBE OF LEVI

Jehovah made a covenant with the tribe of Levi, that the entire tribe should be set aside to constitute the tabernacle service organization, including the priesthood. This occurred in the wilderness of Sinai, in 1512 B.C.E. (Ex. 40:2, 12-16; Mal. 2:4) Aaron and his sons, of the family of Kohath, were to be priests, the remaining families of Levi taking care of other duties, such as setting up the tabernacle, moving it, and other matters. (Num. 3:6-13; chap. 4) Later, they served likewise at the temple. (1 Chron. chap. 23) The installation services for the priesthood were carried out Nisan 1-7, 1512 B.C.E., and they began serving on Nisan 8. (Lev. chaps. 8, 9) The Levites had no inheritance in the land, but received tithes from the other tribes, and had enclave cities in which to dwell. (Num. 13:23, 24; Josh. 21:41) On account of Phinehas’ zeal for exclusive devotion to Jehovah, God made a covenant of peace with him, a covenant for the priesthood to time indefinite for him and his offspring. (Num. 25:10-13) The covenant with Levi continued in operation until the ending of the Law covenant.—Heb. 7:12.

COVENANT WITH ISRAEL AT MOAB

Just before Israel entered the Promised Land, in 1473 B.C.E., Jehovah made a covenant with natural Israel at Moab. (Deut. 29:1; 1:3) It might be called ‘the covenant of the repeated law,’ for much of the Law was here repeated by Moses. The purpose of the covenant was to encourage faithfulness to Jehovah and to make adjustments and set forth certain laws necessary for the Israelites as they changed from a life of wandering to a settled life in the land. (Deut. 5:1, 2, 32, 33; 6:1; compare Leviticus 17:3-5 with Deuteronomy 12:15, 21.) This covenant ended with the abolition of the Law covenant, for it was an integral part of the Law.

COVENANT WITH KING DAVID

The covenant with David was made at some time during David’s reign in Jerusalem (1070-1037 B.C.E.), the parties being Jehovah and David as representative of his family. (2 Sam. 7:11-16) The terms of this covenant were that a son from David’s line would possess the throne forever, and that this son would build a house for Jehovah’s name. God’s purpose in this covenant was to provide a kingly dynasty for the Jews and to give Jesus, as David’s heir, the legal right to the throne of David, “Jehovah’s throne” (1 Chron. 29:23; Luke 1:32), and to provide identification for Jesus as the Messiah. (Ezek. 21:25-27; Matt. 1:6-16; Luke 3:23-31) This covenant included no priesthood; the Levitical priesthood served in conjunction with kings of David’s line; priesthood and kingship were strictly separate under the Law. Since Jehovah acknowledges this kingship and works through it forever, the covenant has everlasting duration.—Isa. 9:7; 2 Pet. 1:11.

COVENANT WITH CHRIST TO BE PRIEST ACCORDING TO THE MANNER OF MELCHIZEDEK

This covenant is expressed at Psalm 110:4, and the writer of the Bible book of Hebrews applies it to Christ at Hebrews 7:1-3, 15-17. It is a covenant made by Jehovah with Jesus Christ alone. By Jehovah’s oath Jesus Christ, the heavenly Son of God, would be a priest according to the manner of Melchizedek. Melchizedek was king and priest of God on earth. Jesus Christ would hold both offices of King and High Priest, not on earth, but in heaven. He was installed permanently into office after his ascension to heaven. (Heb. 6:20; 7:26, 28; 8:1) The covenant is forever in operation, since Jesus will act under Jehovah’s direction as King and High Priest forever.—Heb. 7:3.

NEW COVENANT

Jehovah foretold the new covenant by the prophet Jeremiah in the seventh century B.C.E., stating that it would not be like the Law covenant, which Israel broke. (Jer. 31:31-34) On the night before his death, Nisan 14, 33 C.E., when he established the celebration of the Lord’s evening meal, Jesus Christ announced the new covenant, to be validated by his sacrifice. (Luke 22:20) On the fiftieth day from his resurrection and ten days after he had ascended to his Father, he poured out the holy spirit, which he had received from Jehovah, on his disciples gathered in an upper room in Jerusalem.—Acts 2:1-4, 17, 33; 2 Cor. 3:6, 8, 9; Heb. 2:3, 4.

The parties to the new covenant are Jehovah, on one side, and the “Israel of God,” the spirit begotten ones in union with Christ, making up his congregation or body, on the other side. (Heb. 8:10; 12:22-24; Gal. 6:15, 16; 3:26-28; Rom. 2:28, 29) The new covenant is made operative by the shed blood (the sacrifice of the human life) of Jesus Christ. (Matt. 26:28) When one is selected by God for the spiritual or heavenly calling (Heb. 3:1) God brings that one into His covenant over Christ’s sacrifice. (Ps. 50:5; Heb. 9:14, 15, 26) Jesus Christ is the Mediator of the new covenant (Heb. 8:6; 9:15) and is the primary Seed of Abraham. (Gal. 3:16) By means of Jesus’ mediatorship of the new covenant he assists those in the covenant to become part or the real seed of Abraham (Heb. 2:16; Gal. 3:29) through forgiveness of their sins. Jehovah declares them righteous.—Rom. 5:1, 2; 8:33; Heb. 10:16, 17.

These spirit-begotten, anointed brothers of Christ become underpriests of the High Priest, a “royal priesthood.” (1 Pet. 2:9; Rev. 5:9, 10; 20:6) These do a priestly work, a “public service” (Phil. 2:17), and are called “ministers of a new covenant.” (2 Cor. 3:6) These called ones must follow Christ’s steps closely, faithfully, until laying down their lives in death; Jehovah will then make them a kingdom of priests, making them sharers in divine nature, and will reward them with immortality and incorruption as joint heirs in the heavens with Christ. (1 Pet. 2:21; Rom. 6:3, 4; 1 Cor. 15:53; 1 Pet. 1:4; 2 Pet. 1:4) The purpose of the covenant is to take out a people for Jehovah’s name as a part of Abraham’s “seed.” (Acts 15:14) They become the “bride” of Christ, and are the body of persons whom Christ takes into a covenant for the Kingdom, to rule with Him. (John 3:29; 2 Cor. 11:2; Rev. 21:9; Luke 22:29; Rev. 1:4-6; 5:9, 10; 20:6) The purpose of the new covenant requires that it continue in operation until all of the “Israel of God” are resurrected to immortality in the heavens.

JESUS’ ‘COVENANT FOR A KINGDOM’ WITH HIS FOLLOWERS

On the night of Nisan 14, 33 C.E., after celebrating the Lord’s evening meal Jesus made this covenant with his faithful apostles. To the eleven faithful apostles he promised that they would sit on thrones. (Luke 22:28-30; compare 2 Timothy 2:12.) Later he showed that this promise extended to all spirit-begotten ‘conquerors.’ (Rev. 3:21; see also Revelation 1:4-6; 5:9, 10; 20:6.) On the day of Pentecost he inaugurated this covenant toward them by the anointing with holy spirit of those disciples present in the upper room in Jerusalem. (Acts 2:1-4, 33) Those who would stick with him through trials, dying his kind of death (Phil. 3:10; Col. 1:24) would reign with him, sharing his kingdom rule. The covenant remains operative between Jesus Christ and these associate kings forever.—Rev. 22:5.

VARIOUS OTHER COVENANTS

a. Joshua and the chieftains of Israel made a covenant with the inhabitants of the city of Gibeon to let them live and, though they were cursed Canaanites, whom the Israelites were to destroy, yet a covenant was considered so binding that the Gibeonites were allowed to live, the curse being performed by making them gatherers of wood and drawers of water for the assembly of Israel. (Josh. 9:15, 16, 23-27) b. Joshua, not long before his death, made a covenant with Israel to serve Jehovah. (Josh. 24:25, 26) c. The older men of Gilead made a covenant with Jephthah at Mizpah to make him head over the inhabitants of Gilead if Jehovah gave him victory over the Ammonites. (Judg. 11:8-11) d. Covenant between Jonathan and David. (1 Sam. 18:3; 23:18) e. Jehoiada the priest with the chiefs of the Carian bodyguard and of the runners. (2 Ki. 11:4; 3 Chron. 23:1-3) f. Covenant of Israel with Jehovah to put away foreign wives. (Ezra 10:3) g. Jehovah to give his servant as a covenant of (for) the people. (Isa. 42:6; 49:8) h. David with all the older men of Israel, at Hebron. (1 Chron. 11:3) i. A covenant of the people, during Asa’s reign, to search for Jehovah with all their heart and soul. (2 Chron. 15:12) j. Josiah with Jehovah to keep Jehovah’s commandments, according to the Law. (2 Chron. 34:31) k. Jehovah spoke of the “braggarts” who ruled Jerusalem as erroneously thinking they were safe in a “covenant with Death.”—Isa. 28:14, 15, 18.

COW

The cow filled an important role in the economy of the Israelites. Besides serving as a draft animal, the cow was valued for its production of milk, from which other common items of diet were prepared, including cheese, butter and buttermilk. (Num. 19:2; Isa. 7:21, 22) Also, the hide could be used in making a variety of leather goods.

Cows or heifers were at times sacrificed. (Gen. 15:9; 1 Sam. 6:14; 16:2) The ashes of an entire red cow, burned outside the camp, came to be an ingredient in Israel’s “water for cleansing.” (Num. 19:2, 6, 9) In the case of an unsolved murder, the representative older men of the town nearest the slain one were required to kill a young cow in an uncultivated torrent valley and then wash their hands over the carcass while testifying to their innocence of the crime.—Deut. 21:1-9.

In the Scriptures numerous illustrative uses of the cow or heifer may be noted. The seven fat-fleshed and seven thin-fleshed cows of Pharaoh’s dream were explained as referring to seven years of plenty to be followed by seven years of famine. (Gen. 41:26, 27)