for a relatively short time, initially only thirty days. A person under this penalty was prohibited from enjoying certain privileges. He could go to the temple but there he was restricted in certain ways, and all besides his own family were commanded to stay at a distance of four cubits (about 6 feet or 2 meters) from him. The second step was hheʹrem, meaning something devoted to God, or “a ban.” This was a more severe judgment. The offender could not teach or be taught in the company of others and perform any commercial transactions beyond purchasing the necessities of life. However, he was not altogether cast out of the Jewish organization and there was a chance for him to come back. Finally, there was sham·ma·thaʼʹ, an entire cutting off from the congregation. Some believe the last two forms of excommunication were undistinguishable from one another.

One who was cast out as wicked, cut off entirely, would be considered worthy of death, though the Jews might not always have the authority to execute such a one. Nevertheless, the form of cutting off they did employ was a very powerful weapon in the Jewish community. Jesus foretold that his followers would be expelled from the synagogues. (John 16:2) Fear of being expelled kept some of the Jews, even the rulers, from confessing Jesus. (John 12:42) An example of such action by the synagogue was the case of the healed blind man who spoke favorably of Jesus.—John 9:34.

CHRISTIAN CONGREGATION

Based on the principles of the Hebrew Scriptures, the Christian Greek Scriptures by command and precedent authorize expulsion or disfellowshiping from the Christian congregation. The apostle Paul, with the authority vested in him, ordered the expulsion of an incestuous fornicator who had taken his father’s wife. (1 Cor. 5:5, 11, 13) He also exercised disfellowshiping authority against Hymenaeus and Alexander. (1 Tim. 1:19, 20) Diotrephes, however, was apparently trying to exercise disfellowshiping action wrongly.—3 John 9, 10.

Jesus gave full instructions to his followers as to procedure on handling cases of sin in the congregation and indicated that it could result in one’s being expelled, so that the individual would be to the congregation “just as a man of the nations and as a tax collector.” (Matt. 18:15-17) Tax collectors were much looked down upon; many were extortioners. A Jew who was a tax collector was considered a renegade, classed with “sinners.” (Mark 2:16) Of course, Jesus and his disciples were then still under the Law, but in principle the same procedure continued to guide the Christian congregation. It might be remarked here that, by the “congregation,” Jesus did not mean that the entire membership sat in judgment of the offender; the responsible ones in charge did this. His disciples were familiar with the fact that it was the elders or the “court of justice” or of the “Supreme Court” that did the judging.—Matt. 5:22.

Some of the offenses that could merit disfellowshiping from the Christian congregation are fornication, adultery, homosexuality, greed, extortion, thievery, lying, drunkenness, reviling, spiritism, murder, idolatry, apostasy and the causing of divisions in the congregation. (1 Cor. 5:9-13; 6:9, 10; Titus 3:10, 11; Rev. 21:8) In the last-mentioned case, one promoting a sect should be warned the first and second time before such disfellowshiping action is taken against him. In the Christian congregation, the principle enunciated in the Law applies, namely, that two or three witnesses must establish evidence against the accused one. (1 Tim. 5:19) Those who have been convicted of a practice of sin will be exposed before the entire congregation as practicing conduct not befitting a Christian, “that the rest also may have fear.”—1 Tim. 5:20.

Other restrictions

Similar to the penalty less severe than expulsion as practiced in the Jewish synagogues, the Christian congregation is also authorized by Scripture to impose restrictions on those who are disorderly and not walking correctly but who are not deemed deserving of complete expulsion. Paul wrote the Thessalonian congregation concerning such: “Stop associating with him, that he may become ashamed. And yet do not be considering him as an enemy, but continue admonishing him as a brother.”—2 Thess. 3:6, 11, 13-15.

By exercising this God-given authority the congregation keeps itself clean and in good standing before God.

Reinstatement

Those who have been expelled may be received back into the congregation if they manifest sincere repentance. (2 Cor. 2:5-8) This also is a protection to the congregation, preventing it from being overreached by Satan in swinging from condoning wrongdoing to the other extreme, becoming harsh and unforgiving.—2 Cor. 2:10, 11.

For expelling of demons, see SPIRITISM.

EXTINGUISHERS

The Hebrew word variously translated “snuffers” (AS), “knives” (JB) and “extinguishers” (NW) is thought to be derived from a root (za·marʹ) meaning “to trim, to prune.” Hence some believe that scissorlike utensils designed for trimming the lampwicks are meant. However, all that is definitely known about these utensils is that they were made of gold or copper and were used in connection with the services at the temple.—1 Ki. 7:50; 2 Ki. 12:13; 25:14.

EXTORTION

The act or practice of taking or obtaining anything from an unwilling or reluctant person by illegal use of fear, whether by force, threats, or any other undue exercise of power. The Bible repeatedly warns against any seeking of unjust gain, particularly on the part of those in responsible or official positions.—Ex. 18:21; Prov. 1:19; 15:27.

Nevertheless, under Roman rule over Palestine, Jewish tax collectors were often guilty of extortion. Their position provided them with wide opportunities to enrich themselves unjustly (and undoubtedly their Roman masters also) at the expense of the people. In an illustration Jesus may have alluded to this when he spoke of a self-righteous Pharisee praying alongside a tax collector and commending himself to God as not being an extortioner. (Luke 18:11) The tax collectors who came to John the Baptist asking what to do were counseled: “Do not demand anything more than the tax rate.”—Luke 3:13.

Zacchaeus, a rich chief tax collector, on hearing Jesus speak, repented and turned from his bad course, saying: “Whatever I extorted from anyone by false accusation I am restoring fourfold.” (Luke 19:2, 8) (The Law required in such eases of repentance and admission of guilt that only 120 percent be restored to the defrauded one.—Lev. 6:2-5.)

Extortion is listed in the Christian Greek Scriptures along with fornication, adultery, idolatry, greediness, thievery, drunkenness, reviling and homosexuality as things the practice of which will prevent one from entering the kingdom of God. The apostle Paul, writing to the congregation at Corinth, said that formerly some of them had done such things, but were now washed clean. Therefore, although they could not avoid some contact with these kinds of persons in the world, they must quit associating with any of such ones claiming to be a “brother,” and must remove them from the congregation.—1 Cor. 5:9-11; 6:9-11.

The Christian attitude toward paying extortion in the form of a bribe is illustrated in the apostle Paul’s case. The Roman governor Felix attempted to extort money from Paul by prolonging for two years Paul’s detention in prison. Of this, Paul was aware, but he offered Felix nothing. Eventually Felix was succeeded in office by Governor Festus.—Acts 24:26, 27.

EYE

The organ of sight, a highly efficient, self-adjusting “camera” that transmits impulses to the brain, where the object focused on the eye’s retina is interpreted as sight. The possession of two eyes, as in the human body, provides stereoscopic vision. Sight being probably the most important channel of communication to the mind, the loss of sight is a tremendous handicap. In Israel, under the Law, the man who knocked out the eye of his slave had to let the slave go free. (Ex. 21:26) In order to humiliate and to shatter the power of their enemies, some ancient nations followed the cruel practice of blinding prominent men among the captured enemy. (Judg. 16:21; 1 Sam. 11:2; 2 Ki. 25:7) The eye is one of the most beautiful parts of the body. (Song of Sol. 1:15; 4:9; 7:4) So disfiguring and detrimental was an eye affliction that one could not serve as a priest under the Law covenant if he was blind or diseased in either eye.—Lev. 21:18, 20.

The structure of the eye reveals a marvelous knowledge of optics on the part of its Maker, and the process by which the brain interprets what is transmitted through the eye is far from being understood by scientists, all pointing to its Designer’s intelligence. Jehovah God himself testifies to his creatorship of the eye, saying: “The One forming the eye, can he not look?”—Ps. 94:9; Prov. 20:12.

JEHOVAH’S EYES

God helps humans to understand and appreciate things about himself by likening them to things that we see and know well. Thus he speaks figuratively of his “eyes” being on his people, evidently indicating his watchfulness and loving care for them. The apostle Peter says: “The eyes of Jehovah are upon the righteous ones.” (1 Pet. 3:12) He emphasizes this care and sensitiveness for their welfare when he speaks of his servants as the “pupil” of his eye, metaphorically representing their preciousness in his sight and his quickness to act in their behalf when touched by the enemy.—Deut. 32:10; Ps. 17:8.

Describing God’s observation of the actions of all men, Jeremiah wrote that his “eyes are opened upon all the ways of the sons of men, in order to give to each one according to his ways.” (Jer. 32:19) Of Jehovah’s omniscience and his purpose to exercise justice toward all, the apostle Paul writes: “There is not a creation that is not manifest to his sight, but all things are naked and openly exposed to the eyes of him with whom we have an accounting.” (Heb. 4:13; 2 Chron. 16:9; Ps. 66:7; Prov. 15:3) Of the searching quality of God’s examination of men, the psalmist says: “His own eyes behold, his own beaming eyes examine the sons of men.”—Ps. 11:4.

Jehovah’s ability to know a person’s characteristics and tendencies or his genetic makeup even while he is being formed in the womb, as was the case with Jacob and Esau (Gen. 25:21-23; Rom. 9:10-13), is indicated by the psalmist David’s words: “Your eyes saw even the embryo of me, and in your book all its parts were down in writing, as regards the days when they were formed and there was not yet one among them.”—Ps. 139:15, 16.

ILLUSTRATIVE USAGE

The human eye is an important channel of communication to the mind, strongly influencing the emotions and actions. Satan tempted Eve by causing her to desire something seen with her eyes. (Gen. 3:6) He attempted to induce Jesus to sin by reaching out improperly for things seen with his eyes. (Luke 4:5-7) And the apostle John tells us that “the desire of the eyes” is one of the things originating with this world, which is passing away. (1 John 2:16, 17) Many of the emotions are likewise expressed by the eyes, and so the Scriptures use the expressions “lofty [haughty] eyes” (Prov. 6:17); “lustrous eyes” (of the bad, seductive woman—Prov. 6:25); “eyes full of adultery” (2 Pet. 2:14); the “ungenerous eye” (Prov. 23:6); the “envious eye” (Prov. 28:22); the ‘eye that is wicked’ (‘evil eye,’ AV); the latter does not refer to any magical quality of the eye, but to an eye with bad intent, the opposite of being “kindly in eye.”—Matt. 20:15; Prov. 22:9.

Gestures by means of the eyes are very expressive of the individual’s feelings. They may show pity or lack of it (Deut. 19:13); they may ‘wink’ or ‘blink’ in derision, or scheming insincerity. (Ps. 35:19; Prov. 6:13; 16:30) One who does not want to observe or who does not desire to carry out an act for another may be spoken of as shutting or hiding his eyes. (Matt. 13:15; Prov. 28:27) The stupid one is said to have his eyes “at the extremity of the earth,” wandering here and there without any fixed object, his thoughts being everywhere except where they ought to be. (Prov. 17:24) Even a person’s health and vigor or his state of happiness are manifested by the appearance of his eyes. (1 Sam. 14:27-29; Deut. 34:7; Job 17:7; Ps. 6:7; 88:9) King Jehoshaphat addressed Jehovah: “Our eyes are toward you.”—2 Chron. 20:12.

SEEING GOD

Spirit creatures, angels, are able to behold the brilliance of Jehovah (Matt. 18:10; Luke 1:19), an experience that no human eyes could endure, for Jehovah himself told Moses: “No man may see me and yet live.” (Ex. 33:20) John said: “No man has seen God at any time.” (John 1:18) Therefore, when Jesus told his disciple Philip: “He that has seen me has seen the Father also” (John 14:9), and when the apostle John said: “He that does bad has not seen God” (3 John 11), obviously those spoken of as seeing God see him, not with their physical eyes, but with what the apostle Paul described as the ‘eyes of their heart.’ (Eph. 1:18) Those who see with the eyes of the heart are those who have really come to know God, appreciating his qualities, and that is why John could say: “He that does not love has not come to know God, because God is love.”—1 John 4:8.

So, too, in view of the fact that Jesus said the ‘world would behold him no more’ (John 14:19) the statement at Revelation 1:7: “Every eye will see him [Jesus Christ],” must have reference, not to the literal eye, but, rather, to the effect upon the mind of human observers by the evidences that they can see with their literal eyes when he goes forth to destroy his enemies. The Bible plainly indicates, however, that those whom God calls to heavenly life with Christ will literally see God, which requires for them a change to divine nature, resurrection in a heavenly spiritual body.—1 Pet. 1:4; 2 Pet. 1:4; 1 Cor. 15:50-54; compare 1 Peter 3:18.

SPIRITUAL SIGHT

The spiritual eye as well as the physical eye is a gift of God. (Prov. 20:12) He promises to heal both spiritual eyes and physical ones, and to remove all causes for tears. (Isa. 35:5; Rev. 21:4) One cannot understand God’s purposes without the gift of spiritual eyesight. On the other hand, Jehovah hides his truth from the eyes of those who are stubborn or rebellious, letting “their eyes become darkened.” (Rom. 11:8-10; Luke 19:42) “They have [literal] eyes, but they cannot see [spiritually].”—Jer. 5:21; Isa. 59:10.

Jesus also pointed out that one’s spiritual vision must be kept sharp and in focus. He said: “The lamp of the body is the eye. If, then, your eye is simple [all one way; in focus; generous], your whole body will be bright; but if your eye is wicked, your whole body will be dark. If in reality the light that is in you is darkness, how great that darkness is!” (Matt. 6:22, 23) He further counsels that one should not find fault with some tiny defect in another’s personality, a mere “straw” in his eye, when he