pieces of metal or terminated with hooks; the use of crates, a panel-like or latticed wooden implement, like a shield, the prisoner being thrown into a pit, the crates laid over him and stones heaped upon it; impalement, in which some were nailed, others tied to a stake; hanging; throwing one off of a high rock; drowning; exposure to wild beasts in the arena; forcing one into gladiatorial contests; and burning. Prisoners were often confined in stocks (Acts 16:24) or chained to a soldier guard. (Acts 12:6; 28:20) The Porcian law exempted Roman citizens from flogging.

GREEK

Greek punishments were in many cases the same as those imposed by the Romans. Precipitation off a cliff or into a deep cavern, beating to death, drowning, poisoning and death by the sword were inflicted on criminals.—See crimes and punishments under individual names.

CRIMSON

See COLORS.

CRISPUS

(Crisʹpus) [curled].

The presiding officer of the synagogue at Corinth whom the apostle Paul personally baptized and whose entire household became Christians.—Acts 18:8; 1 Cor. 1:14.

CROCODILE

While the crocodile is not specifically named in most translations, at Job 41:1 Mo and AT translate the Hebrew liw·ya·thanʹ as “crocodile” (as AT does also at Psalm 104:26) and the RS includes “crocodile” in a footnote. The description that follows this verse fits closely the crocodile, one of the largest reptiles extant. The evidence indicates that crocodiles once inhabited the Nile from its mouth at the Mediterranean Sea on up to the river’s source, though they are now found only in its upper reaches. Additionally, Professor W. Corswant, in his book A Dictionary of Life in Bible Times (1956, p. 89) gives evidence of the existence of crocodiles in ancient Palestine in the marshes that lay at the mouth of the Nahr es-Zerka (river Jabbok), “called by the ancients the ‘river of crocodiles,’ and near to the town of Crocodilon [mentioned by Roman historian Pliny].” He also mentions the killing of a crocodile in Palestine as late as 1877. Unger’s Bible Dictionary (p. 61) suggests that they probably were also abundant in the river Kishon in Bible times.

At Job 41 God continues to humble Job with a vivid and poetic description of his creation, and the crocodile, often of a vicious nature, serves well in this regard when compared with an individual man. (Job 41:1-34) The larger kinds of crocodiles may reach a length of over thirty feet (9.1 meters) and weigh as much as one ton (907 kilograms). The jaws, studded with teeth, exert a tremendous pressure. Even a 120-pound (54.4-kilogram) specimen is able to exert a pressure equal to 1,540 pounds (698.5 kilograms) with its jaws. (Vss. 13, 14) The tail not only provides a powerful means of locomotion when in the water but is a dangerous weapon on land. The tail is often used to knock the crocodile’s victim toward the water, and one blow is said to be strong enough to break all four legs of a cow. The scales of its hide are plates of horn set in the leathery skin and as difficult to remove as is the human fingernail. This armor plating covers the crocodile’s entire body, and the scales on its undersides are sharp-edged. A bullet striking a glancing hit on this armor will ricochet.—Vss. 15-17.

The creature’s eyes extend upward from the head, and doubtless their luminosity when reflecting the sun at its rising is the reason for its eyes being described as “like the beams of dawn.” The impression was strong enough for the ancient Egyptians to use the crocodile’s eyes as their hieroglyphic symbol of the morning. When rising to the surface after a period of being submerged, the rapid exhalation of air by the crocodile, producing a spray through the nostrils, may have produced, in the morning sun, the ‘flash of light’ that the book of Job describes, while from its nostrils came smoky vapor. (Vss. 18-21) With no natural enemies, it can be called “king over all majestic wild beasts.”—Vs 34.

The other occurrences of the term “Leviathan” (Job 3:8; Ps. 74:14; 104:26; Isa. 27:1) may also refer to the crocodile, but the description is not explicit. The mention of the “sea” in connection with Leviathan can, in Hebrew, properly refer to any large body of water or even to a large river. But, since one of the largest kinds of crocodile is a saltwater type, the “sea” might also be understood in its usual sense. “Leviathan” is called a “sea monster” at Isaiah 27:1, the same Hebrew term (tan·ninʹ) being applied in the plural at Genesis 1:21 with regard to the creation of “great sea monsters” on the fifth creative day.—See LEVIATHAN.

CROSS

See TORTURE STAKE.

CROWN

A headgear, simple or ornate, worn by persons of distinction, such as kings, queens, other rulers, priests and individuals to be specially honored or rewarded. After the Flood crowns came to be used as symbols of authority, dignity, power, honor and reward.

The early form of the crown was evidently that of the diadem (Heb., neʹzer), a simple band that was probably first used to hold back the long hair of the wearer. However, it was adopted as a royal headdress even among peoples wearing short hair. Such fillets are represented in sculptures of Egypt, Nineveh and Persepolis. Distinctions were drawn as to honored ones in later times by the use of diadems of various colors and types of weaving or designs. Some of these bands were about two inches (c. 5 centimeters) wide and were made of linen, silk and even of silver and gold. Sometimes the diadem was worn over a cap. There were also radiated diadems (having points all around the band running out from it like rays) and there were those set with precious stones.

The Hebrew word neʹzer, in addition to meaning “diadem” (2 Chron. 23:11), can pertain to a thing “set apart” or dedicated, as in the case of the chief priest who had upon him “the sign of dedication, the anointing oil of his God.” (Lev. 21:10-12) In view of this basic meaning, the New World Translation appropriately translates neʹzer at times as “sign of dedication,” with reference to the plate of gold worn by Israel’s high priest upon his turban. On this gold plate were inscribed the words “Holiness belongs to Jehovah.”—Ex. 29:6; 39:30; Lev. 8:9.

Diadems, which were considered symbols of royalty, were worn by Hebrew kings, such as Saul. (2 Sam. 1:10) However, the main Hebrew word denoting a crown in the usual sense and generally rendered “crown” (NW) is ʽata·rahʹ, from ʽa·tarʹ, meaning “to encircle.” It does not necessarily signify a diadem. The crown (ʽata·rahʹ) David took as a prize of war from the Ammonites at Rabbah orginally was kept on the head of the idol Malcam. This crown’s form is not revealed, but it was a “talent of gold in weight [c. 91.5 pounds troy or c. 34 kilograms], and in it there were precious stones.” “It came to be on David’s head,” he possibly placing this heavy crown on his head only briefly, perhaps to signify his triumph over the false deity.—1 Chron. 20:2; see MOLECH.

Some crowns were made of refined gold (Ps. 21:3), others additionally being studded with precious stones. (2 Sam. 12:30) At times, several bands or diadems were combined and this seems to have been the usual nature of a “grand crown.” (Job 31:36) The expression “grand crown” at Zechariah 6:14 is, literally, “crowns” in Hebrew, but is accompanied by a verb in the singular number. Hence, it appears to be in the plural number of excellence or grandeur.

Concerning unfaithful Zedekiah, the last of Judah’s kings, Jehovah decreed: “Remove the turban, and lift off the crown.” This may relate to a kingly turban, over which a crown (perhaps a golden diadem) was worn. (Compare Psalm 21:3; Isaiah 62:3.) Both of these symbols of active royal power were removed, and God’s decree indicated that active rulership on “Jehovah’s throne” (1 Chron. 29:23) would be held in abeyance until the coming of God’s Messianic King.—Ezek. 21:25-27; Gen. 49:10.

A “royal headdress” of the Persian Empire is mentioned at Esther 1:11; 2:17; 6:6-10. The Bible does not describe the Persian “royal headdress,” though the Persian monarch himself ordinarily wore one consisting of a stiff cap, perhaps of cloth or of felt, that had a blue-and-white band around it, the band actually being a diadem.

When Upper and Lower Egypt were united under one monarch, the Egyptian royal headdress became a combination crown. The crown of Lower Egypt (a flat red cap with a high point in the back and a projection with a curled end jutting out diagonally toward the front) was superimposed upon that of Upper Egypt (a round, high white cap tapering to a knob). Usually the Uraeus (the Egyptians’ sacred asp) appears at the front of the crown. The royal headdress of the Assyrian king, which has been described as a high mitre, was often adorned with such figures as flowers, and was arranged in bands of silk or linen. It was a sort of conical cap somewhat similar to a modern fez, though higher. Greek and Roman crowns were simpler, sometimes being radiated diadems or having the form of wreaths.

Roman soldiers, in mockery of Christ’s royal status and probably also to add to his agony, braided a crown of thorns and placed it on Jesus’ head. (Matt. 27:29; Mark 15:17; John 19:2) There have been various suggestions as to the plant used. For instance, the Zizyphus Spina Christi, which has pliable branches, sharp spines and dark-green leaves that look like ivy, has been pointed to. Also suggested is the Nubk (Zizyphus lotus), with bright leaves and strong thorns and found in recent times along the shores of the Sea of Galilee, but not near Jerusalem. However, the Gospel writers do not name the plant.

Jehovah spoke of men putting bracelets upon the hands of the women and “beautiful crowns” on their heads. (Ezek. 23:36, 42) Just what these crowns were like, if they were literal, the Bible does not say. However, in recent centuries, Arab women of distinction and wealth have worn (around dome-shaped caps) crowns that were jeweled gold circlets. A similar type of headdress may have been worn by certain women of antiquity.

Crowns of a wreath or a garland of flowers were used in connection with athletic events. (2 Tim. 2:5) Winners in Grecian games were given crowns or wreaths that were usually made of the leaves of trees and were adorned with flowers. For instance, in the Pythian games the victors received a crown made of laurel; winners in the Olympian games got crowns of wild olive leaves; and victors in the Isthmian games (held near Corinth) were given crowns made of the pine.

The English word “crown” is also applied, among other things, to the top of the head. It is used in that sense in the Scriptures as well.—Gen. 49:26; Deut. 28:35; Ps. 68:21.

FIGURATIVE USE

A capable wife is considered to be “a crown to her owner,” because her good conduct brings honor to her husband, raising him in the estimation of others. (Prov. 12:4) The symbolic woman Zion was to become a “crown of beauty” in Jehovah’s hand, possibly denoting that she was the product of his workmanship being held up in the hand, as it were, so that others could view her with admiration.—Isa. 62:1-3.

Paul’s ministry and that of his traveling companions resulted in the forming of a Christian congregation in Thessalonica, which Paul rejoiced in as a “crown of exultation,” it being one of the uppermost causes of joy to him.—1 Thess. 2:19, 20; compare Philippians 4:1.

Gray-headedness is like a glorious “crown of beauty when it is found in the way of righteousness,” a life spent in fear of Jehovah being beautiful from his viewpoint and meriting respect by all humans as a good example. (Prov. 16:31; see Leviticus 19:32.) Wisdom, like a crown, exalts and wins respect for its possessor. (Prov. 4:7-9) Jesus Christ, who had been made “a little lower than angels,” was “crowned with glory and honor [as a heavenly spirit creature exalted far above the angels] for having suffered death.” (Heb. 2:5-9; Phil. 2:5-11) In heaven, Jesus’ anointed followers receive as a reward for faithfulness “the unfadable crown of glory,” an “incorruptible one.” (1 Pet. 5:4; 1 Cor. 9:24-27; 2 Tim. 4:7, 8; Jas. 1:12; Rev. 2:10) But unfaithfulness that results in one’s loss of Kingdom interests on earth also means his loss of the heavenly crown. Hence, the glorified Jesus Christ admonished: “Keep on holding fast what you have, that no one may take your crown.”—Rev. 3:11.

In the Christian Greek Scriptures, the Greek word di·aʹde·ma (meaning “something bound about the head”) is rendered “diadem” by modern translations. The “great fiery-colored dragon” (Satan the Devil) has a diadem upon each of its seven heads. (Rev. 12:3, 9) A diadem adorns each of the ten horns of the symbolic seven-headed “wild beast” that ascends out of the “sea.” (Rev. 13:1) The one called Faithful and True, namely, Jesus Christ, likewise has upon his head “many diadems,” his being from Jehovah, the rightful source of authority and power. (Rev. 19:11-13; 12:5, 10) Also at Revelation 6:2 and 14:14-16 Jesus Christ is pictured as wearing a crown (steʹpha·nos).

[Picture on page 398]

Egyptian diadem

[Picture on page 398]

Assyrian royal headdress

CRYSTAL

As used in the Bible, crystal denotes a clear transparent mineral, probably the variety of quartz presently called rock crystal. Rock crystal is quartz in its purest form, composed of silicon and oxygen. It is found in its characteristic six-sided form in nearly all kinds of rock and is colorless, clear and glassy in appearance. Rock crystal is much harder than other common minerals, and it is sometimes cut for gemstones.

The comparative worth of rock crystal in Job’s day may be suggested by his appraisal of it along with coral and pearls, and yet he considered them all to be of less value than wisdom. (Job 28:18) Revelation uses clear, brilliant and pure crystal to describe “a glassy sea like crystal,” the radiance of the holy city, New Jerusalem, as “a jasper stone shining crystal-clear” and “a river of water of life, clear as crystal.”—Rev. 4:6; 21:11; 22:1; see JEWELS AND PRECIOUS STONES.

CUBIT

A lineal measure roughly corresponding to the distance from the elbow to the tip of the middle finger. (Deut. 3:11) There are indications that the