known as Kiriath-sepher and Kiriath-sannah. (Josh. 15:15, 49; Judg. 1:11) It was in the inheritance of Judah but became a Levitical city of the Kohathites.—Josh. 21:9, 15; 1 Chron. 6:54, 58.

There are apparently two accounts of Israel’s first conquest of Debir as part of Joshua’s military operations. The first account simply states the annihilating of Debir’s population. (Josh. 10:38, 39) The second, Joshua 11:21-23, is likely a recapitulation of the same conquest (since verse 18 refers to the ‘many days when Joshua waged war with all these kings’), while supplying the additional information that Joshua “cut off the Anakim . . . from Debir” and other cities. This supplementary material may have been added to show that even the tall Anakim, who had stricken such fear in the hearts of Israel’s spies more than forty years earlier (Num. 13:28, 31-33; Deut. 9:2), had not proved invulnerable.

Nevertheless, it appears that the Anakim reestablished themselves in the city of Debir, perhaps coming in from the Philistine coast (Josh. 11:22) while Israel was temporarily at its Gilgal camp or while warring in the N. (Josh. 10:43–11:15) Though Joshua’s initial campaigns had served to subdue the unified resistance of enemy forces in the land of Canaan, rapidly demolishing all major strongholds, apparently this type of warfare did not allow for the establishing of garrisons to hold the sites of all the destroyed cities. So, a second conquest or “mopping up” operation was effected at Debir by Othniel, who, because of distinguishing himself in the city’s conquest, was given Achsah, the daughter of veteran warrior Caleb, as a wife.—Josh. 15:13-19; Judg. 1:11-15.

It cannot be ascertained precisely when in Israel’s history this second conquest occurred. The book of Judges opens with the phrase “after the death of Joshua” and the account of Caleb’s taking Debir follows thereafter (1:11-15). This, according to some, would make Judah’s conquest of Debir subsequent to Joshua’s death and would mean that the similar account found at Joshua 15:13-19 was a later addition to the book bearing Joshua’s name. However, others view Judges 1:1 as only a formal introduction to connect it with the book of Joshua, arguing that Caleb would hardly wait for years until Joshua died before driving the Anakim from his promised possession. Hence, they consider the Judges account to be a restatement of that in Joshua.

LOCATION OF DEBIR

Though various suggestions have been put forth by Biblical scholars as to the exact geographical location of Debir in the mountainous region of Judah, most authorities accept it to be Tell Beit Mirsim, somewhat less than thirteen miles (20.9 kilometers) W-SW of Hebron. Some archaeologists claim to see among the ten partially excavated strata at this site signs of a flourishing Canaanite culture, which was so thoroughly burned at the assumed period of the Israelite invasion as to leave layers of ashes three feet (.9 meter) deep in places. This pre-Israelite city of about seven and a half acres (three hectares) is said to have had a population of between 2,000 and 3,000 persons, who enjoyed such advances as a drainage system and various forms of developed native art.

Some scholars, understanding the “Upper Gulloth and Lower Gulloth” of Joshua 15:19 and Judges 1:15 to mean the “upper springs and the lower springs” (as in many translations), believe these springs to have been in the vicinity of Debir, and on this basis object to Debir’s identification with Tell Beit Mirsim, since this site lacks such springs. Those favoring the identification with Tell Beit Mirsim suggest that ancient wells or “underground basins” discovered a mile (1.6 kilometers) below and two miles (3.2 kilometers) above the site might satisfy the requirements of such association. The Biblical record itself does not specifically locate Upper and Lower Gulloth in relation to Debir.

SIGNIFICANCE OF NAME

The Biblical name “Debir” may indicate the strong religious nature of the city, as the Hebrew word from which the name is drawn is translated “innermost room” (NW) or “inner sanctuary” (RS) (as when later referring to the Most Holy in Solomon’s temple) (1 Ki. 6:5), and its ancient name, Kiriath-sepher (Josh. 15:15; Judg. 1:11), may mean “scribe town.” This has led some to conjecture that Debir was the center of Canaanite religious and legal learning and a place where public registers were kept. Harmonizing with this view is the fact that the Septuagint translators rendered both Kiriath-sepher and the other ancient name of Debir, Kiriath-sannah (Josh. 15:49), to mean “the city of letters.” If this latter name, Kiriath-sannah, is a Phoenician equivalent to the Arabic sunna, meaning “precept,” it would correspond well with the above meaning of Kiriath-sepher, although other scholars consider Kiriath-sannah to mean “city of palms [that is, palm trees]” or to be a scribal error for Kiriath-sepher. While the archaeological finds at Canaanite Tell Beit Mirsim sketch out the picture of a somewhat advanced materialistic culture, there are, by contrast, indications of a depraved character in morals and religion.

OTHER CONQUESTS AND RUIN

There are evidences that this site again suffered at least partial ruin about the time King Sennacherib invaded Judah from the SW, during the reign of King Hezekiah. (2 Ki. 18:13, 14; 19:8) Finally, when Nebuchadnezzar ravaged Judah in 607 B.C.E. (Jer. 25:8-11), Tell Beit Mirsim was so totally destroyed that the site was never reoccupied.

3. A site “at the low plain of Achor” appearing in Judah’s boundary list. (Josh. 15:7) Though its exact location is not now known, some geographers believe the name has survived in Thogheret ed-Debr, the “pass of Debir,” SW of Jericho.

4. A location on the boundary of Gad in Gilead. (Josh. 13:26) This Debir is usually associated with Lo-debar, where the home of Machir (who hosted Mephibosheth and, later, David) was located. (2 Sam. 9:4-6; 17:27-29) Some tentatively identify Debir in Gad with Umm ed-Debar, ten miles (16.1 kilometers) S of the Sea of Galilee.—See LO-DEBAR.

DEBORAH

(Debʹo·rah) [bee].

1. Rebekah’s nurse. When Rebekah left the household of her father Bethuel to come to Palestine and marry Isaac in 1878 B.C.E., Deborah accompanied her. (Gen. 24:59) After years of service in Isaac’s household, Deborah came to be in Jacob’s household perhaps after the death of Rebekah. Evidently some 125 years after Rebekah’s marriage to Isaac, Deborah died and was buried under a big tree at Bethel. The name given to the massive tree (Allon-bacuth, meaning “big tree of weeping”) indicates how beloved she had become to Jacob and his family.—Gen. 35:8.

2. A prophetess and judge in Israel; the wife of Lappidoth. (Judg. 4:4) There is no evidence that Lappidoth and Barak were the same person, as some suggest. The association of Deborah and Barak was purely because of their common interest in liberating Israel from Canaanite oppression. Deborah dwelt under a palm tree located in the mountainous region of Ephraim between Ramah and Bethel; “the sons of Israel would go up to her for judgment.”—Judg. 4:5.

Jehovah used Deborah to summon Barak from Kedesh-naphtali and inform him of God’s purpose to use ten thousand men in defeating the huge army of Canaanite King Jabin under his army chief Sisera. In addition to Jehovah’s promise to give the enemy into his hand, Barak, as he gathered the troops and led them to Mount Tabor, insisted on the presence of Deborah as God’s representative, even though she was a woman. Deborah proved willing to leave her place of greater security and to join Barak. However, she prophesied that the “beautifying thing” of the victory would go to a woman. These words were fulfilled when the woman Jael put Sisera to death.—Judg. 4:6-10, 17-22.

Deborah and Barak joined in singing a song on the day of victory. Part of the song is written in the first person, indicating that Deborah was its composer, in part, if not in its entirety. It was a custom for the women to celebrate victories with song and dance. (Ex. 15:20, 21; Judg. 11:34; 1 Sam. 18:6, 7; Ps. 68:11) The song gives all credit and praise to Jehovah for the victory in behalf of his people. It adds considerably to the narrative that precedes it, and to get a full picture the two must be viewed side by side. After describing Jehovah’s might and majesty and recalling the condition of Israel prior to Barak’s fight, it commends the tribes who responded to the call and inquires about others who did not. It graphically adds details concerning the battle and the rout of the Canaanites, the courageous act of Jael in killing Sisera and the disappointment of Sisera’s mother, who waited in vain for spoils and slaves of Israel to be brought back after the expected victory of her son Sisera.—Judg. chap. 5.

DEBT, DEBTOR

In ancient Israel, debts were incurred primarily due to financial reverses. For an Israelite to become a debtor was a misfortune, the borrower, in effect, becoming the lender’s servant. (Prov. 22:7) God’s people were therefore commanded to be generous and unselfish in lending to needy fellow Israelites, not seeking to profit from their adversity by charging them interest. (Ex. 22:25; Deut. 15:7, 8; Ps. 37:26; 112:5) But foreigners could be required to pay interest. (Deut. 23:20) Jewish commentators understand this provision to apply to business loans, not to cases of need. Ordinarily foreigners were in Israel only temporarily, often as merchants, and could reasonably be expected to pay interest, especially since they would also be lending to others on interest.

At times a third party would assume responsibility or go surety for a debtor. This practice is repeatedly warned against in the book of Proverbs (6:1-3; 11:15; 17:18; 22:26), since the one going surety would be the loser in case of the debtor’s default.

The first-century Christian view of debts is expressed at Romans 13:8: “Do not you people be owing anybody a single thing, except to love one another.”

MOSAIC LAW PROTECTED CREDITORS AND DEBTORS

Under the Mosaic law, even a thief was required to pay off the debt he incurred through his wrongdoing. If unable to do so, he was to be sold into slavery. (Ex. 22:1, 3) Thus the victim was certain of being compensated for his loss.

Faithful Israelites recognized that meeting their debts was a divine requirement. (Ps. 37:21) So the creditor could rest assured of receiving repayment. An Israelite with no material assets could sell himself or his children into slavery to care for his debts.—Ex. 21:7; Lev. 25:39; compare 2 Kings 4:1-7.

On the other hand, the Law also protected the debtor. The creditor could not enter the house of the debtor and seize a pledge but had to wait outside until the debtor brought it to him. (Deut. 24:10, 11) Neither the garment of a widow nor necessities, such as a hand mill or the upper grindstone thereof, could be seized as a pledge. (Deut. 24:6, 17) Since it was common for the poor to have only one outer garment (mantle), in which they also slept, this garment, if taken as a pledge, had to be returned by the creditor at sunset.—Ex. 22:26, 27; Deut. 24:12, 13.

According to Deuteronomy 15:1-3, it appears that during the sabbath year (every seventh year) a creditor could not press a fellow Israelite for payment of a debt. Unlike the sabbath-keeping Israelite who realized virtually no return from his land, the foreigner continued to have an income from his nonagricultural work. Reasonably, therefore, he could be pressed for payment of a debt during the sabbath year. At the approach of the sabbath year, some Israelites, knowing that they would not be able to press matters, may have refrained from lending to their needy brothers. But the Law condemned such selfishness.—Deut. 15:9.

During the Jubilee year (every fiftieth year) Hebrew slaves were set free; all hereditary possessions, with the exception of houses in walled cities not formerly belonging to Levites, were returned to their original owners. This arrangement prevented Israelite families from sinking into hopeless debt and poverty. Even one who mismanaged his assets could not permanently lose his inheritance for his family.—Lev. 25:10-41.

Strict adherence to God’s law would have resulted in a stable economy free from great national and internal debts. The Israelites were assured: “For Jehovah your God will indeed bless you just as he has promised you, and you will certainly lend on pledge to many nations, whereas you yourself will not borrow.”—Deut. 15:6.

ABUSES

As Israel lapsed into a course of unfaithfulness, needy debtors were among those that suffered. The fact that debtors joined themselves to David while he was outlawed suggests that they were hard pressed by their creditors. (1 Sam. 22:2) Lending on interest to fellow Israelites appears to have become common. (Isa. 24:2) Through his prophet Amos, Jehovah condemned Israel for selling “someone poor for the price of a pair of sandals.” (Amos 2:6) And by means of Ezekiel, He denounced the Israelites for charging interest and fraudulently profiting from their companions.—Ezek. 22:12.

After the return from Babylonian exile a deplorable situation developed among the Jews because of their failure to obey God’s law about making interest-free loans to needy fellow Israelites. In the time of Nehemiah, many Jews had been forced to put up their houses, fields and even their sons and daughters as security. However, after Nehemiah’s exhortation to rectify matters, the creditors agreed to make restoration to their debtors and to lend without interest.—Neh. 5:1-13.

JESUS’ ILLUSTRATIONS

In the first century C.E., the relationship of creditors and debtors was very familiar to the Jews, and Jesus at times drew on this for his illustrations. He emphasized the need of being forgiving by telling about a wicked slave who, although having been released from a 60,000,000-denarii debt, had a fellow slave thrown into prison for a 100-denarii debt. (Matt. 18:23-33) The illustration of two debtors, one of whom was forgiven a 500-denarii debt and the other a 50-denarii debt, highlighted the principle: “He who is forgiven little, loves little.” (Luke 7:41-47) Wise use of “unrighteous” (material) riches to make friends with God is illustrated by the unrighteous steward who, when about to lose his position, shrewdly used his authority to make friends with the debtors of his master by reducing their debts.—Luke 16:1-9.

OTHER DEBTS

In the Scriptures, the words “debt” and “debtor” are also used with reference to obligations other than those accrued by borrowing. The wage due a worker is called a “debt.” (Rom. 4:4) Sinners are “debtors” to those against whom they have transgressed and therefore must seek their forgiveness. God’s forgiveness of “debts” depends on whether a person has forgiven his personal “debtors.” (Matt. 6:12, 14, 15; Luke 13:4) In view of his obligation