definite standards held by the one so viewing them.

Thus at Genesis 43:32 we read that it was a “detestable thing” (“abomination,” AV; “abhorrent,” AT; “horreur” [abhorrence], JB) for Egyptians to eat with Hebrews, and at Genesis 46:34 that “every herder of sheep is a detestable thing [“abomination,” AV; “abhorrent,” AT] to Egypt.” According to Rawlinson (Egypt and Babylon, p. 124), this aversion was based on the Egyptian contempt for foreigners in general and for herdsmen in particular. Again, at Exodus 8:25-27, we find Moses, fully aware of the Egyptians’ adoration of certain animals (and particularly of the cow) as sacred, insisting that Pharaoh allow the Israelites to withdraw into the wilderness to make their sacrifices because these would be “a thing detestable to the Egyptians.” Such Egyptian standards, of course, were not divinely set or approved by Jehovah God.

God’s own declared standards, principles and requirements are shown to be the proper basis for detestation. (Lev. 18:1-5; Deut. 23:7) Thus, Psalm 14:1 says: “The senseless one has said in his heart: ‘There is no Jehovah.’ They have acted ruinously, they have acted detestably [a form of ta·ʽavʹ] in their dealing. There is no one doing good.” Examination of the texts using the Hebrew words ta·ʽavʹ and toh·ʽe·vahʹ, therefore, gives insight into God’s mind on matters. It also shows why there is a marked contrast or open conflict between the position or mental attitude of those who follow God’s Word and those ignoring or rejecting it in preference to their own standards or those of others.—Prov. 29:27.

AMONG THE CANAANITES

Before Israel’s entry into Canaan, Jehovah made plain to them the practices and customs of the peoples of Canaan that were detestable to him, and these they were to detest. (Lev. 18:26-30) Outstanding was their practice of idolatry. God said: “The graven images of their gods you should burn in the fire. You must not desire the silver and the gold upon them, nor indeed take it for yourself, for fear you may be ensnared by it; for it is a thing detestable [thoh·ʽavathʹ] to Jehovah your God. And you must not bring a detestable thing [thoh·ʽe·vahʹ] into your house and actually become a thing devoted to destruction like it. You should thoroughly loathe it and absolutely detest [tha·ʽevʹ t^etha·ʽavenʹnu] it, because it is something devoted to destruction.” (Deut. 7:25, 26) Any Israelite guilty of making images for religious worship was to be accursed. (Deut. 27:15) Regardless of the craftsmanship they reflected, such images were to be morally repugnant to God’s people.—Ezek. 7:20; compare Isaiah 44:18-20.

Other practices of the Canaanites to be detested by Israel were: spiritism, with its seances and casting of spells, fortune-telling (Deut. 18:9-12), offering children up in fire to their gods (Deut. 12:31; Jer. 32:35; 2 Ki. 16:3), incest, sodomy, and cohabitation with animals (Lev. 18:6, 22-30; 20:13). Doubtless the morally repugnant practice of sodomy was the reason for the severity of the rule declaring the wearing of apparel of the opposite sex to be “detestable.” (Deut. 22:5) The Canaanites also practiced “sacred” prostitution by male and female temple prostitutes, but Jehovah prohibited the bringing of “the hire of a harlot or the price of a dog” into his house, “because they are something detestable.”—Deut. 23:17, 18; 1 Ki. 14:24.

On the basis of these and other “abominable” or “detestable” practices, Jehovah God ordered Israel to devote the Canaanites to destruction so that no contamination by false religion would result. (Deut. 20:17, 18) Any Israelite practicing the same things or advocating such apostasy was to receive precisely the same penalty.—Deut. 13:12-15; 17:2-7; Ezra 9:1, 11-14.

ISRAEL INFECTED

In the rest of the Hebrew Scriptures ta·ʽavʹ and toh·ʽe·vahʹ are used to describe commercial cheating or fraud (Deut. 25:13-16; Prov. 11:1; 20:10, 23), lying (Ps. 5:6; 119:163; Prov. 12:19, 22), adultery (Ezek. 33:26), robbery, greed and oppression of the poor (Ezek. 18:10-13), pride, shedding of innocent blood, hurtful scheming, bearing false witness, and causing contention among brothers, all of which are termed “detestable” by God.—Prov. 3:32; 6:16-19; 11:20; 15:26; 24:9; 26:24-26.

The practice of these things also makes one’s worship unacceptable to God, causing such one’s sacrifices and even his prayers to be “detestable” to God. (Prov. 15:8, 9; 21:27; 28:9) For this reason Jehovah later called the apostate Israelites’ sacrifices, incense, new moon and sabbath celebrations “detestable.” (Isa. 1:11-17) He asked them: “Can there be stealing, murdering and committing adultery and swearing falsely and making sacrificial smoke to Baal and walking after other gods whom you had not known, and you must come and stand before me in this house upon which my name has been called, and must you say, ‘We shall certainly be delivered,’ in the face of doing all these detestable things [“abominations,” AV]? Has this house upon which my name has been called become a mere cave of robbers in your eyes?” (Jer. 7:9-11) They came to be past shame or humiliation for their detestable acts.—Jer. 6:15; 8:12.

Even though Israel’s leaders, the kings and the priests, were guilty of these acts or condoned them (1 Ki. 21:25, 26; 2 Ki. 21:2-12; 2 Chron. 28:1, 3; 33:2-6; 36:8, 14; Ezek. 8:6-17; 43:7, 8), God’s faithful prophets were ordered to cause the people to know Jehovah’s detestation of their rebellious course and warn them of the consequences. (Ezek. 16:2, 51, 52; 20:4; 22:2; 23:36) The people were urged to reject such detestable practices and return to God’s statutes and standards of conduct. (Ezek. 14:6) To continue practicing what God detests could only lead to eventual desolation and destruction. (Jer. 44:4, 22; Ezek. 6:11; 7:3-9; 11:21; 12:16; 33:29) After the captivity some would become ashamed and clean up with a “new spirit.”—Ezek. 6:9; 11:18-21; 36:31.

Job’s experience shows that those who uphold God’s standards may be mocked (Job 30:9, 10) and rejected by former acquaintances (Job 19:19; Ps. 88:8), because such ones “have hated a reprover, and a speaker of perfect things they detest.” (Amos 5:10) “It is something detestable to the stupid ones to turn away from bad.” (Prov. 13:19) But God detests those who twist his standards so as to pronounce “the wicked one righteous” and “the righteous one wicked.” (Prov. 17:15) He promises a complete reversal of circumstances in the future for his servants who are thus detested.—Isa. 49:7; compare Matthew 5:10-12; 1 Peter 3:16; 4:1-5; see DISGUSTING THING, LOATHSOME THING.

DEUEL

(Deuʹel) [knowledge of God].

One whose son Eliasaph served as the chieftain of the tribe of Gad during Israel’s wilderness wanderings. (Num. 1:14; 7:42, 47; 10:20) In the Masoretic text and the Syriac Peshitta Version he is called “Reuel” at Numbers 2:14. This may be due to a scribal error, since the Hebrew letters for “d” and “r” are very similar and the name “Deuel” does, in fact, appear at Numbers 2:14 in the Samaritan Pentateuch, the Latin Vulgate and over a hundred Hebrew manuscripts.

DEUTERONOMY, BOOK OF

The authenticity of Deuteronomy as a book of the Bible canon and the writership of Moses are well established by the fact that Deuteronomy has always been considered by the Jews as a part of the Law of Moses. The evidence for the authenticity of Deuteronomy is, in general, the same as that for the other four books of the Pentateuch (which see). Jesus is the foremost authority for the authenticity of Deuteronomy, quoting from it three times in turning away the temptations of Satan the Devil. (Matt. 4:1-11; Deut. 6:13, 16; 8:3) Also, Jesus answered the question as to what was the greatest and first commandment by quoting from Deuteronomy 6:5. (Mark 12:30) Paul quotes from Deuteronomy 30:12-14; 32:35, 36.—Rom. 10:6-8; Heb. 10:30.

The time covered by the book of Deuteronomy is somewhat over two months in the year 1473 B.C.E. It was written on the Plains of Moab and consists of four discourses and a song and a blessing by Moses as Israel camped on Canaan’s borders prior to entering the land.—Deut. 1:3; Josh. 1:11; 4:19.

PURPOSE

Deuteronomy is not a second law nor a repetition of the entire Law, but an explanation, as Deuteronomy 1:5 says. It exhorts Israel to faithfulness to Jehovah, using the generation of the forty years’ wandering as an example to avoid. Moses explains and elaborates on some of the essential points of the Law and the principles therein, with a view to the altered circumstances of Israel when they would be settled permanently in the land. He adjusts some of the laws accordingly and gives further regulations concerning the administration of government in their settled condition in the Promised Land.

In exhorting them and calling on them to enter into this renewed covenant with Jehovah through Moses, the book of Deuteronomy places the emphasis strikingly on knowledge, teaching and instruction. The words “teach,” “teaching,” and “taught” occur much more often in Deuteronomy than in Exodus, Leviticus or Numbers. Moses explains that Jehovah was teaching Israel by feeding them with manna. (Deut. 8:3) He tells the Israelites to place Jehovah’s law as frontlets between their eyes and on the doorposts of their houses and on their gates. (6:8, 9) He commands them to inculcate his law in their sons. (6:6, 7) Instructions are given to read the Law every seventh year, during the time of the (annual) Festival of Booths. (31:10-13) Special instructions were given for the king that Israel might have in the future. He was to write a copy of the law for himself and must read in it every day. (17:18-20) Each time before Israel went out to battle the priests were to admonish the people to faith and courage and to assure them of victory, for Jehovah their God was marching with them. (20:1-4) When they should enter the Promised Land they were to divide the tribes into two groups, with one group on Mount Ebal and the other on Mount Gerizim, and then have God’s law read to them.—27:11-26; compare Joshua 8:33-35.

LOVE HIGHLIGHTED

Love, kindness and consideration are also highlighted in Deuteronomy. The word “love” itself occurs twice as often in Deuteronomy as in Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers combined. Here we also have the greatest commandment, to which Jesus referred (Matt. 22:36, 37), uniquely stated: “You must love Jehovah your God with all your heart and all your soul and all your vital force” (Deut. 6:5; see also 10:12; 11:13.) Jehovah repeatedly expresses his love for Israel. (Deut. 7:7-9; 23:5; 33:3) The very tone of Deuteronomy highlights Jehovah’s love for his people. “If only they would develop this heart of theirs to fear me and to keep all my commandments always, in order that it might go well with them and their sons to time indefinite!” (5:29) In fact, we find such expressions as “that it may go well with you” and “that you may keep alive” time and again in Deuteronomy.—4:40; 5:16; 6:3; 22:7; 30:19, 20.

Even though warfare was ahead of Israel in taking the land, Jehovah did not overlook loving consideration. Victory was not so important or urgent that ruthless demands were to be made. An engaged man was exempt. (Deut. 20:7) Exemption was made for a newly married man, so that he could cherish his wife and she have her husband for at least a full year. (24:5) If a man planted a vineyard and had not eaten the fruit of it or built a house and not inaugurated it, he was excused from warfare so that he might enjoy the fruits of his labors.—20:5, 6.

Explicit details were given with respect to waging war and taking the land of Canaan. The fearful were to be sent home, lest they make the hearts of their brothers also weak. (Deut. 20:8) The cities of the specified nations of Canaan whose wickedness had come to the full were to be devoted to destruction without fail, but the cities not of these specified nations were to be given the alternative of surrender or destruction. If they surrendered, they were to be put to forced labor, but the Law required that even slaves be treated with kindness, and its commandments protected the women even in cities taken in war from being molested. Those who refused to surrender were to be put to death, only the little children, and women who had not had relations with men, being spared. (20:10-18; compare Numbers 31:17, 18.) In building siege works around a city, the Israelites were not permitted to cut down fruit trees.—Deut. 20:19, 20.

Animals were also given loving consideration in the book of Deuteronomy. The Israelites were prohibited from taking a bird sitting on a nest, for it was the protective instinct for her offspring that made her vulnerable. She was allowed to escape, but the young could be claimed by the Israelites for themselves. The mother was thus free to raise more young. (Deut. 22:6, 7) The farmer was not permitted to hitch an ass with a bull, to prevent hardship on the weaker animal. (22:10) The bull was not to be muzzled while threshing the grain so that he would not be tormented with hunger while grain was so close at hand and he was exerting his energy in work to thresh it.—25:4.

In family and social life consideration was shown. The firstborn son was to receive the double portion, regardless of whether he was the son of the favorite wife or not. (Deut. 21:15-17) Brother-in-law marriage was stated as a law for the first time and the penalties outlined so as to give it force. (25:5-10) Honest weights and measures were mandated. (25:13-16) The value of life was stressed by the command to build a parapet around the roof of a house. (22:8) Consideration even for the wrongdoer that was to be given strokes was indicated by the Law that limited the strokes to forty. (25:1-3) All these regulations gave more detail to the Law, while also showing great consideration. At the same time there was more strictness.

WARNINGS AND LAWS

Deuteronomy is filled with warnings against false worship and unfaithfulness and instructions on how to deal with it so that pure worship might be preserved. The exhortation to holiness was an outstanding thing in Deuteronomy. The Israelites were admonished not to intermarry with the nations round about, because this would present a threat to pure worship and loyalty to Jehovah. (Deut. 7:3, 4) They were warned against materialism and self-righteousness. (8:11-18; 9:4-6) Strong laws were made regarding apostasy. They were to watch themselves so that they would not turn to other gods. (11:16, 17) They were warned against false prophets. Instructions were given in two places as to how to identify a false prophet and how he should be dealt with. (13:1-5; 18:20-22) Even if a member of one’s own family should become apostate, the family was not to have pity but was to share in stoning such a one to death.—13:6-11.

Cities of Israel that turned apostate were to be devoted to destruction and nothing preserved for personal benefit by anyone. The city was never to be rebuilt. (Deut. 13:12-17) Delinquents uncontrollable by their parents were to be stoned to death.—21:18-21.

Holiness and freedom from bloodguilt were emphasized by the law concerning the way to handle an unsolved murder. (Deut. 21:1-9) Indicative of the zeal