one such as a prophet or a king. (2 Ki. 2:8; Jonah 3:6) The prophet’s official garment was likely made of camel’s or goat’s hair. (2 Ki. 1:8; Matt. 3:4; Mark 1:6; compare Genesis 25:25.) Elijah appointed Elisha as his successor by throwing his official garment upon him, and Elisha took up this garment after Elijah was carried away in a windstorm. (1 Ki. 19:19; 2 Ki. 2:13) It was an official garment from Shinar that Achan took from the “devoted” city of Jericho, in violation of Jehovah’s command.—Josh. 7:1, 21.

The Greek word enʹdy·ma is used with reference to a wedding garment (Matt. 22:11, 12), to the clothing of the angel at Jesus’ tomb (Matt. 28:3), to John the Baptist’s camel-hair clothing and to garments in general.—Matt. 3:4; 6:25, 28; Luke 12:23.

Veil

The woman’s “headdress” or “veil” that the apostle Paul speaks of in connection with the symbol of woman’s subjection to headship is pe·ri·boʹlai·on (Gr.), something that is thrown around, a wrap. (1 Cor. 11:15) It is different from the face veil or covering worn by Moses when his face shone so that the Israelites could not look upon it. (Ex. 34:33-35; 2 Cor. 3:13) Rebekah put on a headcloth when meeting Isaac, her espoused, to denote her subjection. (Gen. 24:65) The Hebrew word tsaʽiphʹ, used here, is translated “shawl” (NW), “veil” (AT, AV, RS) at Genesis 38:14, 19.

Sash, belt or girdle

A sash was often worn over the inner or the outer garments. When one engaged in some form of physical activity or work, he would ‘gird up his loins’ by wearing a sash, often pulling the ends of the garment up between his legs and tucking these ends under the sash so that he would have freedom of movement. (1 Ki. 18:46; 2 Ki. 4:29; 9:1) The high priest wore a woven sash over his linen robe and, when wearing the ephod, a girdle of the same material was worn to hold the back and front parts of the apronlike ephod close to the waist. (Ex. 28:4, 8, 39; 39:29) A belt or girdle was a commonly worn item because of its additional convenience for placing in it sheathed daggers or swords, for holding money, the inkhorn of the recorder, and so forth.—Judg. 3:16; 2 Sam. 20:8; Ezek. 9:3.

Since those engaged in some form of work, and servants or slaves, wore a sash or girdle, it came to be symbolic of service or of one ministering to others. Jesus’ expression “let your loins be girded” figuratively describes readiness for spiritual activity on the part of God’s servants. (Luke 12:35) Jesus laid aside his outer garments and girded himself with a towel. He then ministered to the apostles by washing their feet, as an example to teach them to serve their brothers. The angels seen in vision by John had golden girdles, signifying a most precious service.—John 13:1-16; Rev. 15:6.

Elijah wore a belt (Heb., ʼe·zohrʹ) of leather “girded about his loins,” as did John the Baptist (zoʹne being the Greek word for John’s girdle).—2 Ki. 1:8; Matt. 3:4.

Fringes

God commanded the Israelites to make fringed edges on the skirts of their garments, with a blue string above the fringe. This seems to have been peculiar to Israelite dress and provided a visual reminder that they were set aside as a people holy to Jehovah. It would keep before their eyes the fact that they should obey Jehovah’s commandments. (Num. 15:38-41) Tassels were also to be put on the four extremities of their clothing; possibly this had reference to the four corners of the mantle. (Deut. 22:12) The hem of the high priest’s blue sleeveless coat was fringed with alternate golden bells and pomegranates of cloth material.—Ex. 28:33, 34.

Pins

Where a robe or a sash needed fastening, the Hebrews may have used a toggle pin. Specimens found in the Middle East are pointed on one end and had a hole like a needle’s eye at the middle, into which a cord was tied. The garment would be fastened by inserting the pin into it and then winding the cord around the pin’s protruding ends. It appears that about the tenth century B.C.E. a form of safety pin somewhat resembling our modern safety pin may have been introduced into Palestine.

RIGHT AND WRONG VIEW OF DRESS

Jehovah’s people are told not to be unduly anxious about having sufficient clothing. (Matt. 6:25-32) The Christian woman is warned not to let expensive, showy dress or style be the thing she seeks, but, rather, to let her clothing be modest yet well arranged, showing soundness of mind. She should therefore give attention to her dress, but should put the primary stress on the apparel of a quiet and mild spirit. (1 Tim. 2:9; 1 Pet. 3:3-5) The wise writer of Proverbs describes a good wife as seeing that her family is well clothed, industriously making garments with her own hands.—Prov. 31:13, 21, 24.

On the other hand, many women of Bible times used their attire as a means of gaining their selfish objectives. It was a custom for women of pagan cities, when about to be captured by the enemy, to put on their finest apparel in order to attract soldiers who might take them as wives. But, in case a captive woman was taken by an Israelite soldier, she was required to set aside her items of dress, some of which might be connected with pagan religion, before he could marry her.—Deut. 21:10-13.

After Israel had fallen into many idolatrous and immoral practices, Jehovah condemned the women of the nation who haughtily garbed and decorated themselves in order to attract men, even men of other nations, and for decking themselves with the ornaments of false religion.—Isa. 3:16-23; compare Proverbs 7:10.

FIGURATIVE USAGE

Jehovah portrays Jerusalem as once figuratively attired by him in beautiful garments. But she trusted in her prettiness and consorted with the pagan nations, decking herself out to be attractive, as a prostitute.—Ezek. 16:10-14; see also Ezekiel 23:26, 27; Jeremiah 4:30, 31.

Clothing is used symbolically in many Bible passages. Jehovah portrays himself as clothed with dignity, splendor, eminence, light, righteousness, zeal and vengeance. (Ps. 93:1; 104:1, 2; Isa. 59:17) He is said to clothe his people in garments of righteousness and salvation. (Ps. 132:9; Isa. 61:10) His enemies will be clothed with shame and humiliation. (Ps. 35:26) Paul commands Christians to strip off the old personality and to clothe themselves with the new personality, some of the features of which are the tender affections of compassion, kindness, lowliness of mind, long-suffering and, especially, love.—Col. 3:9-14.

Many other symbolic references are made to clothing. Just as a uniform or special attire identifies one as belonging to a certain organization or supporting a certain movement, so clothing, as used symbolically in the Bible, indicates the identification of a person by the stand he takes and his activities in harmony with it, as in the case of Jesus’ illustration of the marriage garment.—Matt. 22:11, 12; see HEADDRESS; SANDAL.

DRINK OFFERING

See OFFERINGS.

DRUNKENNESS

The condition of being intoxicated due to excessive drinking of alcoholic beverages. A drunkard is a person who habitually overindulges in strong drink to the point of drunkenness.

Intoxicating drinks in ancient Biblical lands included wine made from grapes (Deut. 32:14), and alcoholic beverages prepared from other fruits such as the pomegranate (Song of Sol. 8:2), or from grains. (Isa. 1:22) Moderate use of wine and other strong drinks is acceptable to Jehovah, who provides “wine that makes the heart of mortal man rejoice.”—Ps. 104:14, 15; see BEER, II; WINE AND STRONG DRINK.

CONDEMNED IN THE BIBLE

Use of strong drink to the point of drunkenness is strongly censured in the Bible. The wise writer of Proverbs paints a vivid and scientifically accurate picture of the effects of drinking alcoholic beverages to excess. He warns: “Who has woe? Who has uneasiness? Who has contentions? Who has concern? Who has wounds for no reason? Who has dullness of eyes? Those staying a long time with the wine, those coming in to search out mixed wine. Do not look at wine when it exhibits a red color, when it gives off its sparkle in the cup [when wine of any color causes one to see red; when everything looks red to him], when it goes with a slickness [when it slides down the throat easily]. At its end it bites just like a serpent, and it secretes poison just like a viper [it can make one sick physically (for example, causing cirrhosis of the liver) and mentally (producing delirium tremens), and it can actually kill]. Your own eyes will see strange things [the alcohol acts on the control centers of the brain, repressing them; attitudes normally repressed come to the fore; hallucinations appear; gaps in memory are filled by the individual’s telling fantastic experiences in a most plausible way; the person exhibits uninhibited behavior], and your own heart will speak perverse things [bad motives will take control; compare Hosea 4:11].”

The drunkard’s personal experience is described as the writer continues: “And you will certainly become like one lying down in the heart of the sea [experiencing the confusion of one drowning, finally passing into unconsciousness], even like one lying down at the top of a mast [as the rocking of the ship is greatest at this point, the drunkard’s life is in danger from accident, stroke, a fight, and so forth]. ‘They have struck me, but I did not become sick; they have smitten me, but I do not know it [says the drunkard, as if talking to himself; he was insensible to what was actually going on and to the punishment that the experience has inflicted on him]. When shall I wake up? I shall seek it yet some more [he must now sleep off the effects of overindulgence, but he is enslaved by the drink and looks forward to drinking more when he is able].”’ He will come to poverty, because of spending excessive amounts for liquor and also by rendering himself unable to work and becoming unreliable.—Prov. 23:20, 21, 29-35.

PROHIBITED IN THE CHRISTIAN CONGREGATION

The drunkard is prone to boisterousness or rough, unrestrained noisiness and to ridiculous actions, bringing reproach. (Prov. 20:1; Ps. 107:27; Isa. 19:14) Consequently, the practice of drunkenness is not to be tolerated in the Christian congregation. God’s attitude toward drunkenness was revealed in his law to Israel. A son who was stubborn and rebellious, who was a glutton and a drunkard, was to be stoned to death. (Deut. 21:18-21) Similarly, the Bible commands that unrepentant or habitual drunkards are to be expelled from the Christian congregation. (1 Cor. 5:11-13) The “works of the flesh” include “drunken bouts, revelries,” which things the nations in general practice. A Christian, having been cleansed from such practices, but thereafter returning to them, would be prevented from entering God’s kingdom. (1 Cor. 6:9-11) He is to cease spending his time working out the will of the nations by engaging in their excesses with wine and their drinking matches. (1 Pet. 4:3) He must devote himself to producing the fruits of God’s spirit.—Gal. 5:19-24.

Moderation and soundness of mind are therefore among the requirements for Christian overseers (1 Tim. 3:1-3; Titus 1:7); ministerial servants (1 Tim. 3:8); aged men and women (Titus 2:2, 3); young men and women (Titus 2:4-8); children (especially those of overseers).—Titus 1:6.

In discussing the Lord’s evening meal, the apostle Paul reproved the Corinthian Christians, some of whom took their own evening meal beforehand at the congregation’s meeting place, “so that one is hungry but another is intoxicated.” They evidently considered the Lord’s evening meal as an occasion for eating and drinking to satisfy themselves. (1 Cor. 11:20-22) As shown in the Law, it is not fitting to indulge in alcoholic beverages just before engaging in religious service. The priests of Israel were commanded that they must drink no wine or intoxicating liquor while engaging in their official duties, lest they should die.—Lev. 10:8-11.

RECORD OF CERTAIN CASES PRESERVED FOR A PURPOSE

Several instances of drunkenness are mentioned in the Bible when such incidents throw light on some important matter. Thus it relates that, after the flood, Noah planted a vineyard, “began drinking of the wine and became intoxicated.” This happening is recorded in the Scriptures to show how Noah’s curse on Canaan came to be uttered. (Gen. 9:20-27) In another case, on two different nights, Lot’s two daughters gave him so much wine that he became drunk and they had sexual relations with him. (Gen. 19:30-38) This account enlightens us on the origin of the nations of Moab and Ammon and their relationship to Israel. Lot was evidently drunk enough to lose control of his good sense but not “dead drunk,” that is, not too drunk to have sexual relations. (Some ancient Jewish authorities claim that the original Hebrew text read, at verses 33 and 35: “he did know when she got up.”) Since God’s Word so strongly condemns drunkenness, we can be sure that these righteous men were not habitual in drinking to excess, not drunkards. But the candor of the Bible is here illustrated, in its not sparing the truth when relating events involving Bible personages for our enlightenment. Some other cases of drunkenness are recorded at 1 Samuel 25:36-38; 2 Samuel 11:13; 1 Kings 20:15-21.

A FALSE SUPPOSITION

When the holy spirit was poured out upon Christ’s disciples on Pentecost of 33 C.E., they spoke in different languages and some said: “They are full of sweet wine.” But Peter explained: “These people are, in fact, not drunk, as you suppose, for it is the third hour of the day,” or about 9 a.m., counting from sunrise (about 6 a.m.). (Acts 2:1-4, 13-15) These observers of Pentecost had the scroll of Isaiah’s prophecy, where it is written: “Woe to those who are getting up early in the morning that they may seek just intoxicating liquor.” (Isa. 5:11) Actually, it was not customary to have a feast or banquet at that early hour and it was unrealistic to think that 120 people would all be drunk together at that time of morning. Paul expresses the custom when he says: “Those who get drunk are usually drunk at night.”—1 Thess. 5:7.

FIGURATIVE DRUNKENNESS

The leaders of the ten-tribe kingdom, with Ephraim as its dominant tribe, were spiritually drunk with “wine.” For one thing, they doted on political independence and alliances with the enemies of the kingdom of Judah, whose kings sat on “Jehovah’s throne.” (1 Chron. 29:23) They doubtless had their literal drunken bouts as well. These men were also religious, being in a covenant with Jehovah God, but violating it in an arrogant, drunken way and reproaching Him.—Isa. 28:1-4.

Similarly, the priests and leaders of Judah became figuratively drunk. As religious guides they added traditions of men; they saw and spoke false things about God’s holy nation. They looked to Assyria for help instead of to God. (Isa. 29:1, 9-14; 2 Ki. 16:5-9) As foretold, drunken Israel was carried off by Assyria in 740 B.C.E. Later, apostate Judah was forced to drink the cup of Jehovah’s rage and was sent reeling into exile to Babylon in 607 B.C.E. (Isa. 51:17-23) Because of Babylon’s harsh treatment of God’s people, Babylon (“the king of Sheshach”) drank the same cup sixty-eight years later.—Jer. 25:15-29.

Symbolic “Babylon the Great” is depicted in the Bible as a drunken prostitute, having in her hand a golden cup “full of disgusting things and the unclean things of her fornication.” Earth’s inhabitants have been made drunk with the “wine of her fornication.” She herself is “drunk with the blood of the holy ones and with the blood of the witnesses of Jesus.” Her debauchery will result in her everlasting destruction.—Rev. 17:1-6, 16; 14:8; 18:8; see BABYLON THE GREAT.

DRUSILLA

(Dru·silʹla).

The third and youngest daughter of Herod Agrippa I, born about 38 C.E.; sister of Agrippa II and Bernice. Her mother’s name was Cypros. (See HEROD.) Before she was six years old her marriage to prince Epiphanes of Commagene was arranged, but it never materialized due to refusal of the groom-to-be to embrace Judaism. A Syrian king, Azizus of Emesa, met the terms of circumcision, and Drusilla became his bride at the age of fourteen. Aggravated by his cruelty, and nettled by the envy of her less attractive sister Bernice, Drusilla was easily induced to divorce Azizus, contrary to Jewish law, and marry Governor Felix about 54 C.E. Perhaps she was present when prisoner Paul “talked about righteousness and self-control and the judgment to come,” which proved to be most disquieting subjects for Governor Felix. After two years, when Felix turned the governorship over to Festus, he left Paul in chains “to gain favor with the Jews,” which some think was done to please his youthful wife “who was a Jewess.” (Acts 24:24-27) Drusilla’s son by Felix was another Agrippa, reportedly killed in the great eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 C.E.

DUKE

[Heb., na·sikhʹ].

A man who is appointed, installed, invested as a prince or principal one. Five Midianite chieftains, “dukes of Sihon,” called “kings of Midian” at Numbers 31:8, were killed when Israel took vengeance on the Midianites for the affair of the Baal of Peor. (Josh. 13:21) The leaders of the enemies of God’s people are called “dukes” (“princes,” AT; AV; RS) at Psalm 83:11. The term appears also at Ezekiel 32:30.

A Messianic prophecy states that, when the enemies of God’s people come against them, “seven shepherds, yes, eight dukes of mankind [“princes of men,” AV, margin, RS]” will be raised up. Seven representing completeness, the “eight dukes” would evidently mean that a considerable number of capable men appointed under the Messiah would be taking the lead among Jehovah’s people.—Mic. 5:5.

DUMAH

(Duʹmah) [silence].

1. The sixth in the list of Ishmael’s twelve sons. By the marriage of his sister Mahalath, Dumah became the brother-in-law to his half-cousin Esau. Dumah also became a chieftain and head of a clan or nation, in fulfillment of Jehovah’s promise to Abraham.—Gen. 17:20; 25:14-16; 28:9; 1 Chron. 1:30.

The Ishmaelite Dumah evidently gave his name to a region in N Arabia about midway between Palestine and S Babylonia. The name continues in that of the oasis Dumat al-Ghandal. Ancient inscriptions from Assyria and Babylon give the name as Adummatu and Adummu and show it to have been conquered by Sennacherib and Esar-haddon of Assyria and later by the Babylonian Nabonidus.

2. A city listed among those assigned to the tribe of Judah after the conquest of the land by Joshua. (Josh. 15:52) It was in the mountainous region and is evidently identified with modern ed-Domeh, about ten miles (16 kilometers) SW of Hebron.

3. At Isaiah 21:11 a pronouncement is made against “Dumah.” However, mention is immediately made of “Seir,” and this may indicate that the message is directed against Edom. (Gen. 32:3) The Septuagint Version at Isaiah 21:11 says “Idumaea” (Edom) rather than “Dumah.”

DUNG

Excrement of humans, birds and beasts is represented by various words in Biblical languages. In the Scriptures, dung often has figurative associations.

A “private place” or “privy” was at the service of Israel’s soldiers outside their army camps, and they were to cover their excrement. (Deut. 23:12-14) This preserved the army’s cleanness before Jehovah and also helped to prevent the spread of fly-borne infectious diseases.

One of Jerusalem’s gates was the “Gate of the Ash-heaps,” usually called “the Dung Gate.” (Neh. 2:13; 3:13, 14; 12:31) Situated a thousand cubits (c. 1,458 ft., or 444 meters) to the E of the Valley Gate and hence to the S of Mount Zion, this gate probably was so named because of the refuse heaped up in the Valley of Hinnom located below it and to which it led, the city’s garbage possibly being taken out through this gate.

Some of the nomadic heathen peoples may have used dung as fuel. Ezekiel, enacting a scene prophetic of Jerusalem’s siege, objected when God commanded him to use human excrement for fuel in baking bread. God kindly permitted him to use cattle manure instead. (Ezek. 4:12-17) This seems to indicate that it was not the normal practice in Israel.

Dung was used as manure to fertilize the soil. Straw and dung seem to have been mixed in a “manure place,” the straw possibly being trodden into it by animals. (Isa. 25:10) A way to fertilize a fig tree was to “dig around it and put on manure.”—Luke 13:8.

Generally, dung was considered to be offensive refuse, something for disposal. Expressive of its offensiveness, and also giving force to the thought of removal, were Jehovah’s words concerning the wayward house of Israel’s King Jeroboam: “I shall indeed make a clean sweep behind the house of Jeroboam, just as one clears away the dung until it is disposed of.”—1 Ki. 14:10.

Turning a man’s house into a public privy was the greatest insult and a punishment. (Ezra 6:11; Dan 2:5; 3:29) During the test of godship atop Mount Carmel, Elijah taunted the prophets of unresponsive Baal by saying: “He must be concerned with a matter, and he has excrement and has to go to the privy.” (1 Ki. 18:27) Jehu later had the house of Baal pulled down and “they kept it set aside for privies.”—2 Ki. 10:27.

Dung or manure is also employed as a simile to denote an ignominious end of an individual or a nation. (2 Ki. 9:36, 37; Ps. 83:10; Jer. 8:1, 2; 9:22; 16:4) God foretold that during his controversy with the nations those slain by Jehovah would not be bewailed, gathered up or buried, but they would become “as manure on the surface of the ground.”—Jer. 25:31-33; compare Zephaniah 1:14-18.

According to the Law, no sin offering, the blood of which was brought into the sanctuary to make atonement, was to be eaten by the priest. Its carcass and its dung were to be burned in a clean place outside the camp. (Lev. 4:11, 12; 6:30; 16:27) This was because none of the animal was to be put to any other use or allowed to decay. It was “clean,” that is, sanctified to Jehovah and therefore had to be burned in a clean place.—Compare Hebrews 13:11-13.

Paul, who highly esteemed spiritual things and greatly valued his hope in Christ, declared: “On account of him I have taken the loss of all things and