four “heads,” producing the rivers named as the Euphrates, Hiddekel, Pishon and Gihon. (Gen. 2:10-14) The Euphrates (Heb., P^erathʹ) is well known, and “Hiddekel” is the name used for the Tigris in ancient inscriptions. (Compare also Daniel 10:4.) The other two rivers, the Pishon and the Gihon, however, are unidentified.—See CUSH No. 2; HAVILAH No. 1.

Some, such as Calvin and Delitzsch, have argued in favor of Eden’s situation somewhere near the head of the Persian Gulf in Lower Mesopotamia, approximately at the place where the Tigris and the Euphrates draw near together. They associated the Pishon and Gihon with canals between these streams. However, this would make these rivers tributaries, rather than branches dividing off from an original source. The Hebrew text points, rather, to a location in the mountainous region N of the Mesopotamian plains, the area where the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers have their present sources. Thus The Anchor Bible, 1964, in its commentary on Genesis 2:10, states: “In Heb[rew] the mouth of the river is called ‘end’ (Josh xv 5, xviii 19); hence the plural of ro’s ‘head’ must refer here to the upper course. . . . This latter usage is well attested for the Akk[adian] cognate resu.” The fact that the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers do not now proceed from a single source, as well as the impossibility of definitely determining the identification of the Pishon and Gihon Rivers, is best explained by the effects of the Noachian flood, which undoubtedly altered considerably the topographical features of the earth, filling in the courses of some rivers and creating others.

Supporting a location of Eden in the mountainous region mentioned is the fact that the ark with its survivors came to rest on “the mountains of Ararat” (Gen. 8:4) Since the ark was not powered but merely floated, it should reasonably be expected to have settled again at least in the general region in which the floodwaters lifted it up. That Eden may have been surrounded by some natural barrier, such as mountains, could be suggested by the fact that cherubs are stated to have been stationed only at the E of the garden, from which point Adam and Eve made their exit. (Gen. 3:24) So, the traditional location for the garden of Eden has long been suggested as an area some 140 miles (225 kilometers) SW of Mount Ararat and a few miles S of Lake Van, in the eastern part of modern Turkey.

After Adam’s banishment from the paradisaic garden, with no one to “cultivate it and to take care of it,” it may be assumed that it merely grew up in natural profusion with only the animals to inhabit its confines until, some 1,656 years later, it was obliterated by the surging waters of the Flood, its location lost to man except for the divine record of its existence.

2. A place mentioned along with Haran and Canneh as a principal trading center with Tyre, specializing in fine garments, carpets and rope. (Ezek. 27:23, 24) It is suggested to be an abbreviated form of the name Beth-eden referred to at Amos 1:5. The “sons of Eden” are included among other inhabitants of places that were vanquished by the Assyrian forces (2 Ki. 19:12; Isa. 37:12), and it is generally considered that this Eden (or Beth-eden) corresponds to the small district of Bit-adini along the middle course of the Euphrates River.—See BETH-EDEN.

3. One of the Levites who responded to King Hezekiah’s call for reform; thereafter assigned to work under Kore, “the gatekeeper to the east,” in the distribution of the holy contributions among the priestly divisions.—2 Chron. 29:12; 31:14, 15.

EDER

(Eʹder) [drove, flock].

1. A descendant of Beriah of the tribe of Benjamin who dwelt in Jerusalem.—1 Chron. 8:1, 15, 16, 28.

2. A descendant of Mushi of the Levitical family of Merari, assigned to priestly service during the time of David.—1 Chron. 23:21, 23-25; 24:30.

3. A city in the southern part of Judah. (Josh. 15:21) Since the Septuagint has “A·raʹ” instead of “Eder” in this text, most geographers consider them identical, locating both at Tell Arad, twenty-two and a half miles (36.2 kilometers) E-NE of Beer-sheba.

4. A tower near which Jacob (Israel) pitched his tent sometime after the death of Rachel. Although its exact location is not known, it was apparently located some place between Bethlehem and Heron. The name Eder (meaning “drove” or “flock”) indicates it provided shelter for shepherds and served as a watchtower from which they could oversee their flocks. (Gen. 35:19, 21, 27) While tenting here, his son Reuben “profaned [Jacob’s] lounge,” having relations with Jacob’s concubine Bilhah.—Vs. 22; 49:3, 4.

The same Hebrew expression here translated “tower of Eder” (migh·dal-ʽeʹdher) is used by Micah (4:8) when referring to the “tower of the drove.” This expression may allude to the name of Jacob’s camping site, and is used in connection with the restoration of Jehovah’s “limping” people. (Vs. 7) With “Zion” restored they would be watched over as from a lookout “tower” and thereby be guarded from further danger. Such an illustration is consistent with other similes in Micah’s prophecy, he referring to the Messiah as one who would do “shepherding” (5:2-4) and Jehovah’s people as “the flock of [God’s] inheritance.”—7:14.

EDOM

(Eʹdom) [red, ruddy], Edomites.

Edom was the secondary name or byname given to Esau, Jacob’s twin brother. (Gen. 36:1) It was applied to him because of his selling his birthright for the red stew. (Gen. 25:30-34) Coincidentally, Esau at birth had had a very ruddy color (Gen. 25:25), and a similar color prevailed in parts of the land he and his descendants later inhabited.

SEIR AND EDOM

Sometime during Jacob’s twenty-year stay in Haran Esau, (Edom) had begun to establish himself in the land of Seir, “the field of Edom.” (Gen. 32:3) Thus, even before the death of his father (Gen. 35:29), Esau was apparently beginning to fulfill Isaac’s prophetic blessing, directing his attention away from the fertile soils around Hebron and, doubtless, beginning to ‘live by his sword,’ along with the four hundred men under his command. (Gen. 27:39, 40; 32:6, 8) The record indicates, however, that he still maintained residence or a base camp in the Hebron area, not transferring definitely to the mountainous region of Seir until after his father’s death (1738 B.C.E.). By then his family had grown and his possessions were great.—Gen. 36:6-8.

The land of Seir had previously been the domain of Horites (Gen. 14:6; 36:20-30), but Esau’s sons dispossessed the Horite sheiks and took over the region. (Deut. 2:12) Thereafter the land became known as the land of Edom, though the older name of Seir still continued to be in use. (Num. 24:18) The name Seir seems to be echoed in the modern name Jebel esh-Shera’, applied to the principal mountain range S of the Dead Sea and E of the Arabah (the southern extension of the great Rift Valley, which, N of the Dead Sea, forms the valley of the Jordan).

GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION

The territory of Edom extended about a hundred miles (c. 161 kilometers) from its frontier with Moab in the N, formed by the torrent valley of Zered, down to Elath (Eloth) on the Gulf of Aqabah in the S. (Deut. 2:1-8, 13, 14; 1 Ki. 9:26) To the E, the Edomite domain apparently extended out to the edge of the Arabian Desert, while to the W it reached across the Arabah to the wilderness of Zin and embraced the Negeb highlands region stretching from the SW corner of the Dead Sea on down to Kadesh-barnea. The western portion of Edom therefore came to form the SE boundary of Judah’s territory.—Josh. 15:1; compare Numbers 34:3.

The true heartland of the Edomite territory, however, evidently lay E of the Arabah, for here the high mountain range, with some points reaching an altitude of 5,600 feet (c. 1,707 meters), receives some rainfall. This is because the land W of the Arabah, the Negeb, is considerably lower, allowing the remnants of Mediterranean storm clouds to pass over and reach the higher mountains of Edom, where they release some of their remaining moisture. Thus, archaeological investigations show a string of ancient settlements and fortresses along a narrow tongue of arable land on the highest part of the long mountainous tableland or plateau, but these run out as one proceeds S toward the Gulf of Aqabah. Modern Tafileh, some eighteen miles (29 kilometers) from the S end of the Dead Sea, has large olive groves, though this is due in great measure to the flow of water from eight fine springs, only about eleven inches of rainfall being deposited annually.

Though fertile land was in short supply, this rugged mountainous region held valuable deposits of copper and iron, mining and smelting being carried on around modern Feinan, some thirty miles (48.3 kilometers) S of the Dead Sea. Evidence can also be seen of the existence of ancient pine forests of considerable size.

In harmony with the above, we see that Moses, upon sending messengers to the king of Edom, spoke of the Israelite position at Kadesh-barnea as “at the extremity of your territory,” and, when requesting permission for peaceful passage through Edomite territory, Moses referred to their fields, vineyards and wells.—Num. 20:14-17.

STRATEGIC POSITION

Moses requested permission for Israel to travel over the “king’s road” through Edom. (Num. 20:17) This road, generally called “the King’s Highway,” runs from the Gulf of Aqabah on up to Damascus in Syria, following the edge of the high plateaus lining the E side of the Arabah when traversing Edom. Along it were to be found the major cities of Edom, including Bozrah and Petra (connected with Biblical Sela). (Gen. 36:33; 2 Ki. 14:7) A route also led from the Negeb over to Petra, continued E through Maʽan on the edge of the Arabian Desert, connecting there with another route running N and S. Over these roads passed rich cargoes from Egypt, Arabia, Syria and Mesopotamia. Toll collected from camel or donkey caravans traversing the roads likely contributed greatly to Edom’s wealth. Weary desert travelers also may have paid for food and lodging upon reaching Edom. Petra became a rich trading city, rivaling Damascus in importance.

The steep escarpment or wall of the plateau that faced the Arabah gave the main stronghold of Edom excellent protection from that direction. The deep canyon of Zered valley impeded invasion from Moab. (Note, however, Amos 2:1.) A chain of fortresses faced the desert to the more vulnerable E, providing defense against Midianite and other nomadic tribes. Additionally, the clefts that cut into the mountains and plateaus are generally walled in by unscalable red sandstone cliffs forming forbidding gorges. With good reason Jehovah’s prophecy through Jeremiah speaks of the Edomites as confidently “residing in the retreats of the crag, holding the height of the hill,” and like an eagle in its nest.—Jer. 49:7, 16.

THE PEOPLE OF EDOM

The Edomites as descendants of Esau were basically a Semitic race, but with a strong Hamitic strain. This was due to two of Esau’s wives being from Hamitic Canaanite stock (Hittite and Hivite), only one wife named being Semitic, through Abraham’s son Ishmael. (Gen. 36:2, 3) If, as some scholars hold, the name “Horite” means simply “cave dweller,” Esau’s Hivite wife Oholibamah, the daughter of Anah, may have come from the Horite dwellers of Seir. (Compare Genesis 36:2, 20, 24, 25.) At any rate, the Edomites, like Lot’s descendants the Moabites and Ammonites (note Daniel 11:41), were related to the Israelites and originally they also practiced circumcision. (Jer. 9:25, 26; compare Ezekiel 32:29.) Jehovah referred to them as Israel’s “brothers,” and Edomite land rights were to be held inviolate by the Israelites advancing through the wilderness, since Jehovah had granted Edom’s descendants Mount Seir as a holding.—Deut. 2:1-8.

Originally formed into sheikdoms, the Edomite tribes later were organized under a kingdom. The royal line of succession indicates that the kings came from different tribes or sheikdoms, hence not taking the throne on a hereditary family basis. (Gen. 36:15-19, 31-43) Some critics have viewed as an anachronism or as a later insertion the reference at Genesis 36:31 to the Edomite rulers as “the kings who reigned in the land of Edom before any king reigned over the sons of Israel.” This is not the case, however, since Moses, the recorder of Genesis, already knew God’s clear promise to Jacob (Israel) that “kings will come out of your loins.” (Gen. 35:11) Moses himself foretold that Israel would eventually have a king.—Deut. 28:36.

The Septuagint Version contains an addition to Job 42:17 that would identify Job with Jobab, the Edomite king of Genesis 36:33. Job, however, was from the land of Uz, a name given originally to an Aramaean tribe and repeated in Aramaean Nahor’s lineage. (Job 1:1; compare Genesis 10:23; 22:20, 21.) Lamentations 4:21 does speak of Edom as ‘dwelling in the land of Uz,’ but this text, written many centuries after the probable time of Job’s life, does not equate Uz with Edom, especially since at Jeremiah 25:20, 21, “the kings of the land of Uz” are distinct from Edom. The text may rather indicate an extension of the Edomite domain.—See Uz.

On the other hand, it seems definite that one of the three “companions” who visited and criticized Job in his diseased state was an Edomite, namely, Eliphaz the Temanite. (Job 2:11; compare Genesis 36:11, 34.) Teman is presented as a center of Edomite wisdom at Jeremiah 49:7, the regular Edomite contact and communication with travelers from the Orient perhaps contributing to their reputation for wisdom.

EDOMITE HISTORY FROM THE EXODUS TO THE CLOSE OF JUDEAN HISTORY

The destruction of Pharaoh’s forces and Israel’s miraculous deliverance at the Red Sea had repercussions in Edom, as in all the region in and around Canaan. (Ex. 15:14, 15) In the wilderness of the Sinai Peninsula, Israel’s first armed opposition came from a far-ranging Edomite tribe, the Amalekites, a source of trouble for Israel throughout their history. (Ex. 17:8-16; compare Genesis 36:12, 16; see AMALEK, AMALEKITES.) At the close of the period of wandering, Moses’ respectful request for safe conduct over the king’s highway through Edom was rejected and the unnamed Edomite king marshaled a strong force to block any Israelite intrusion. (Num. 20:14-21) So, following Aaron’s death at Mount Hor by the border of Edom (Num. 20:22-29), Israel skirted Edom’s heartland, camped by the torrent valley of Zered and thereafter traveled N past Moab’s eastern frontier, all without suffering attack.—Num. 21:4, 10-13; Judg. 11:18; compare Deuteronomy 2:26-29.

In the poetic blessing Moses pronounced over Israel before his death, he described Jehovah God as ‘coming from Sinai’ and having “flashed forth from Seir [Edom]” and ‘beamed forth from the mountains of Paran.’ A similar description occurs in Barak and Deborah’s song and in the prophecy of Habakkuk. (Deut. 33:2; Judg. 5:4, 5; Hab. 3:3, 4) This prophetic portrayal thus evidently sets forth the arena or theater in which Jehovah had manifested himself to his newly formed nation, illuminating them as by flashes of light shining over the mountain peaks.

Israel had been commanded not to detest an Edomite, “for he is your brother.” (Deut. 23:7, 8) However, not only the aggressive Amalekite tribe, but Edom as a whole followed a course of opposition to Israel. Saul successfully waged war against them. (1 Sam. 14:47, 48) Yet, Saul had an Edomite, Doeg, as head over his shepherds and this man acted as informer to Saul against David. When Saul’s men were averse to attacking the priests of Nob, Saul used Doeg to accomplish a wholesale massacre.—1 Sam. 21:7; 22:9-18.

David, as king, won a major victory over the Edomites in the Valley of Salt. (2 Sam. 8:13) While the action provoking the battle is not stated, Edomite aggression was doubtless responsible, perhaps due to the Edomites’ thinking that David’s campaigns into Syria had left the southern part of his kingdom vulnerable to invasion. (See SALT, VALLEY OF.) At 1 Chronicles 18:12 and in the superscription of Psalm 60, Abishai and Joab respectively are described as effecting the conquest of the Edomites. Since David was commander-in-chief and Joab was his principal general, while Abishai was a divisional commander under Joab, it can be seen how the accounts could differ in crediting the victory, depending upon the viewpoint taken, even as is the case in modern times. Similarly the difference in figures in these texts is likely due to the narrator’s particular view of the different aspects or campaigns of the war. (Compare 1 Kings 11:15, 16.) At any rate, David stationed garrisons of Israelite troops throughout Edom, and Edom’s remaining population became subject to Israel. (2 Sam. 8:14; 1 Chron. 18:13) The “yoke” of Jacob now rested heavily on Edom’s (Esau’s) neck.—Gen. 27:40; compare Numbers 24:18.

Solomon, who married Edomite women (1 Ki. 11:1), made use of Israelite control over the Edomite coastal cities on the Red Sea, Eloth (Elath) and Ezion-geber, for developing a shipping enterprise. (1 Ki. 9:26; 2 Chron. 8:17, 18) Edom’s depleted male population was unable to lift off the Israelite yoke, though an escapee of royal blood, Hadad, did lead a resistance movement of some sort.—1 Ki. 11:14-22.

Whether this situation prevailed continuously for a full century after David’s initial conquest cannot be said. There is some uncertainty as to whether the attack by the “sons of Ammon and Moab and the mountainous region of Seir [Edom]” (2 Chron. 20:1, 2, 10, 22) took place before or after the combined assault by Judean, Israelite and Edomite forces against Moab. (2 Ki. 3:5-9) At any rate, Edom apparently formed part of each triple alliance, fighting first on one side and then on the other. It is also stated that, at some point in Jehoshaphat’s reign, Edom had no king, the land being ruled by a deputy, evidently answerable to the Judean throne, and Judah’s access to the Gulf of Aqabah and its port or ports was unobstructed. (1 Ki. 22:47, 48) With regard to the campaign against Moab, the predicted flooding of the previously dry torrent valley where the allied armies camped may have resulted from a desert thunderstorm on the higher plateau. Such storms in modern times can send torrents of water rushing down me wadis toward the Arabah. Or the water may have appeared by purely miraculous means.—2 Ki. 3:16-23.

Edom revolted and threw off the Judean yoke in the reign of Jehoshaphat’s son Jehoram and reestablished its independent monarchy. Although Jehoram won a military victory in an encounter with them, the Edomites remained in revolt. (2 Ki. 8:20-22; 2 Chron. 21:8-10) In the first half of Amaziah’s reign (858-829 B.C.E.), the Valley of Salt was again the scene of military disaster for Edom, and Amaziah seized the major Edomite city of Sela, being ensnared, however, by worship of Edom’s impotent false gods. (2 Ki. 14:7; 2 Chron. 25:11-20) His son, Uzziah (Azariah), restored Elath to Judean control.—2 Ki. 14:21, 22.

Syria, in an offensive action against Judah during Ahaz’ reign (761-745 B.C.E.), put the Red Sea port of Elath (Eloth) back into Edom’s hands. (2 Ki. 16:5, 6) The Edomites, evidently free from Judah’s dominion, joined other nations, including Assyria, in raids against Judah.—2 Chron. 28:16-20; compare Psalm 83:4-8.

No written records have been found from Edomite sources. Secular records of other nations, however, make mention of them. An Egyptian papyrus thought to be of the second millennium B.C.E. refers to Bedouin tribes from Edom entering the Delta region in search of pasturage for their cattle. Pharaohs Merneptah and Ramses III claimed dominion over Edom, as did the Assyrian monarch Adad-nirari III. Some decades after this latter king, Tiglath-pileser III (a contemporary of Ahaz) boasts of receiving tribute from “Kaushmalaku of Edom,” while Esar-haddon, Sennacherib’s successor, lists “Qaushgabri” as an Edomite vassal king.

EDOM IN PROPHECY

As early as King Uzziah’s rule, the prophets Joel and Amos pronounced Jehovah’s positive condemnation of Edom for its unrelenting fury expressed against Israel by the unmerciful use of the sword. (Amos 1:6, 11, 12) Edom, by its vicious opposition to Jehovah’s covenant people, had forfeited its title to the land it had held by divine warrant. (Joel 3:19; Amos 9:11, 12) The Edomites sealed their doom when the Babylonians conquered Judah and Jerusalem in 607 B.C.E. Edomite hatred was clearly revealed as they rejoiced at Judah’s tragedy, urged on her devastators (Ps. 137:7), and, in their enmity and desire for revenge, even turned over Judean escapees for slaughter by the Babylonians. They joined other neighboring peoples in plundering the land, and planned to take over the abandoned country of Judah and of Israel, speaking boastfully against Jehovah. For this, Jehovah directed his prophets Jeremiah, Ezekiel and Obadiah to assure Edom that its rejoicing would be short-lived and the treatment meted out to Judah would also become Edom’s portion. (Lam. 4:21, 22; Ezek. 25:12-14; 35:1-15; 36:3-5; Obad. 1-16) As the prophet Isaiah had earlier foretold, the sword-wielding Edomites would come under Jehovah’s own sword of justice and judgment, all classes, great and small, becoming like sacrificial animals devoted to destruction.—Isa. 34:5-8.

Edom was to become like Sodom and Gomorrah, uninhabited for all time. (Jer. 49:7-22; compare Isaiah 34:9-15.) Meriting Jehovah’s hatred, Edom would be called “the territory of wickedness” and “the people whom Jehovah has denounced to time indefinite.” (Mal. 1:1-5) Edom thus evidently stands as symbolic of the hard-set enemies of God’s covenant people at Isaiah 63:1-6, where the divine Warrior with bloodstained garments who has trod the winepress of God’s vengeance appropriately is described as coming from Edom (meaning “red”) and from Edom’s most prominent city Bozrah (meaning “fortified place,” though possibly used here as a play on the Hebrew word ba·tsir’, meaning “vintage”).—Compare Revelation 14:14-20; 19:11-16.

LATER HISTORY AND DISAPPEARANCE

Some Judean exiles did find temporary refuge in Edom, returning to their land after the departure of the Babylonian armies, but then fleeing down to Egypt. (Jer. 40:11, 12) Soon the time for Edom to begin drinking the cup of Jehovah’s wrath arrived as Babylon’s forces returned to the Palestinian area for a further campaign, and the foretold yoke of Babylon descended on Edom’s neck. (Jer. 25:15-17, 21; 27:2-7) Jewish historian Josephus (Antiquities of the Jews, Book X, chap. IX, par. 7) says that Nebuchadnezzar carried out another campaign against Syria-Palestine in his twenty-third year, attacking Ammon and Moab. (Compare Jeremiah 52:30.) Likely Edom also came in for attention then (602/601 B.C.E.), but the Babylonian subjugation did not bring complete ruin to the land. However, a wave of nomads from Arabia began exercising pressure on the Edomites from about the fifth century B.C.E. onward. By the third century the Nabataean tribe had pushed the Edomites out of their heartland and the major site of Petra and into the Negeb to the S of Judah. Eventually the Edomites moved farther N, reaching up to Hebron, and the southern part of Judah now became known as Idumea. According to Josephus (Antiquities of the Jews, Book XIII, chap. IX, par. l; Book XV, chap. VII, par. 9), John Hyrcanus subjugated them sometime between 130 and 120 B.C.E. and compelled them to accept Judaism. Thereafter they were gradually absorbed by the Jews and, following the Roman destruction of Jerusalem in 70 C.E., they ceased to exist as a people. (Compare Isaiah 11:13, 14; Obadiah 10, 17-21.) The Herods were basically of Edomitic descent.—See IDUMEA.

[Map on page 485]

(For fully formatted text, see publication)

The Land of Edom

EDOM

WILDERNESS OF ZIN

MOAB

ARABIAN DESERT

Dead Sea

Torrent Valley of Zered

Bozrah

Mt. Hor

Kadesh-barnea

ARABAH

Ezion-geber

Elath

Gulf of Aqabah

King’s Highway

Petra

Teman(?)

EDREI

(Edʹre·i).

1. One of the cities of residence of Og, king of Bashan. (Josh. 12:4; 13:12) After defeating Sihon the Amorite, the Israelite forces under Moses’ direction “went up,” that is, went northward, until they encountered Og’s military force in “the battle of Edrei,” at what was apparently Bashan’s southern frontier. Though Og was the last of the giantlike Rephaim and may have presented a formidable army, the Israelites, advised by Jehovah to be fearless, wiped out Og, his sons and people, taking possession of his territory. (Num. 21:33-35; Deut. 3:1-10) The city was later granted to Manasseh as part of its inheritance. (Josh. 13:31) Edrei is generally identified with the modern city of Derʽa about thirty-two miles (51.5 kilometers) E of the southern end of the Sea of Galilee, near the Yarmuk River. Ruins there include a partially excavated subterranean city, cut in the rock beneath the ground-level city.

2. A fortified city of Naphtali. (Josh. 19:32, 35, 37) It is often associated with modern Tell Khureibeh, about four miles (6.4 kilometers) W of the Huleh Basin. This Edrei is possibly the same as the city named ʼtra in a list of Pharaoh Thutmose III.

EDUCATION

The imparting or acquisition of knowledge and skill. Education is accomplished through (1) explanation and repetition; (2) discipline, training administered in love (Prov. 1:7; Heb. 12:5, 6); (3) personal observation (Ps. 19:1-3; Eccl. 1:12-14); (4) reproof and rebuke.—Ps. 141:5; Prov. 9:8; 17:10.

Jehovah God is the great Educator and Instructor, of whom there is no equal. (Job 36:22; Ps. 71:17; Isa. 30:20) God’s earthly son Adam was created with the ability to speak a language; Adam must have been able also to write his language. (Gen. 2:19, 20, 23) He received instruction about creation (Gen. chaps. 1, 2) and God’s requirements for him.—Gen. 1:28-30; 2:15-17.

EDUCATION IN PATRIARCHAL SOCIETY

Throughout the entire Bible the family is the basic unit for imparting education. In earliest society the father was the head of the family and of the household, which might even be a large community, such as that of Abraham. The family head was responsible for the education of his household. (Gen. 18:19) The good training manifested by Joseph indicates that Isaac and Jacob followed their father Abraham in teaching their children. (Gen. 39:4, 6, 22; 41:40, 41) Job of the land of Uz, a distant relative of Abraham, displayed acquaintance with the scientific understanding and industrial developments of his day, and he was given a lesson in natural history by Jehovah.—Job 9:1, 9; chaps. 28, 38-41.

At the same time we find that there was considerable knowledge in Egypt of astronomy, mathematics, geometry, architecture, construction and other arts and sciences. Moses, besides getting an education in the worship of Jehovah from his mother (Ex. 2:7-10), was “instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians. In fact, he was mighty in his words and deeds.” (Acts 7:22) Even the Israelites, though