Prophets and Psalms,” the Psalms being the most important book in the third section called the “writings.”—Luke 24:44.

Jesus’ words at Matthew 23:35 (and at Luke 11:50, 51) are also very significant: “That there may come upon you all the righteous blood spilled on earth, from the blood of righteous Abel to the blood of Zechariah son of Barachiah, whom you murdered between the sanctuary and the altar.” Timewise, the prophet Urijah was put to death during the reign of Jehoiakim more than two centuries after Zechariah’s murder near the end of Jehoash’s reign. (Jer. 26:20-23) So if Jesus wanted to cite the whole list of martyrs, why did he not say ‘from Abel to Urijah’? Evidently it was because the instance concerning Zechariah is found at 2 Chronicles 24:20, 21, and hence near the end of the traditional Hebrew canon. So in this sense Jesus’ statement did embrace all the murdered witnesses of Jehovah mentioned in the Hebrew Scriptures, from Abel listed in the first book (Genesis) to Zechariah cited in the last book (Chronicles), which, by illustration, would be like our saying “from Genesis to Revelation.”

CHRISTIAN GREEK SCRIPTURES

The writing and collecting of the twenty-seven books comprising the canon of the Christian Greek Scriptures was similar to that of the Hebrew Scriptures. Christ “gave gifts in men,” yes, “he gave some as apostles, some as prophets, some as evangelizers, some as shepherds and teachers.” (Eph. 4:8, 11-13) With God’s holy spirit upon them they set forth sound doctrine for the Christian congregation and, “by way of a reminder,” repeated many things already written in the Scriptures.—2 Pet. 1:12, 13; 3:1; Rom. 15:15.

Outside the Scriptures themselves there is evidence that, as early as 90-100 C.E., at least ten of Paul’s letters were collected together. It is certain that at an early date Christians were gathering together the inspired Christian writings. We read: “Just when and to what extent ‘collections’ of our NT books began to be made it is impossible to say, but it is fair to infer that a collection of the Pauline epistles existed at the time Polycarp wrote to the Phil[ippians] and when Ignatius wrote his seven letters to the churches of Asia Minor, i.e. about 115 AD. There is good reason to think also that the four Gospels were brought together in some places as early as this.”—The International Standard Bible Encyclopaedia, Vol. I, p. 563.

Early writers such as Clement of Rome (30?-?100 C.E.), Polycarp (69?-?155 C.E.) and Ignatius (late 1st and early 2d centuries C.E.), wove in quotations and extracts from various books of the Christian Greek Scriptures, showing their acquaintance with such canonical writings. Clement of Rome in his Second Epistle, chapter 2, speaks of the Gospels and epistles as “Scripture.” Justin Martyr (died c. 165 C.E.) in his Dialogue with Trypho, chapter 49, used the expression “it is written” when quoting from Matthew, in the same way the Gospels themselves do when referring to the Hebrew Scriptures. The same is also true in an earlier work, the Epistle of Barnabas, chapter 4. Justin Martyr in his first “Apology” (chaps. 66, 67) calls the ‘Memoirs of the Apostles’ “Gospels.”

Theophilus of Antioch (169 C.E.) declared: “Concerning the righteousness which the law enjoined, confirmatory utterances are found both with the prophets and in the Gospels, because they all spoke inspired by one Spirit of God.” Theophilus then uses such expressions as “the Gospel says” (quoting Matthew 5:28, 32, 44, 46; 6:3) and “the divine word gives us instructions” (quoting 1 Timothy 2:2 and Romans 13:7, 8).—Theophilus to Autolycus, Book III, chaps. 12-15.

By the end of the second century there was no question but that the canon of the Christian Greek Scriptures was closed, and we find such ones as Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria and Tertullian recognizing the writings comprising the Christian Scriptures as carrying authority equal to that of the Hebrew Scriptures. Irenaeus in appealing to the Scriptures makes no fewer than two hundred quotations from Paul’s letters. Clement says he will answer his opponents by “the Scriptures which we believe are valid from their omnipotent authority,” that is, “by the law and the prophets, and besides by the blessed Gospel.”—The Stromata, or Miscellanies, Book IV, chap. 1.

The canonicity of certain individual books of the Christian Greek Scriptures has been disputed by some, but the arguments against them are very weak. For critics to reject, for example, the book of Hebrews simply because it does not bear Paul’s name and because it differs slightly in style from his other letters is shallow reasoning. As Dr. B. F. Westcott observes, “The apostolic authority [hence the canonicity] of the Epistle is independent of its Pauline authorship.” (The Epistle to the Hebrews, Greek Text and Notes, 1889, p. lxxi) Objection on the grounds of unnamed writership is far outweighed by the presence of Hebrews in the Chester Beatty Papyrus No. 2 (dated within a hundred and fifty years of Paul’s death), contained therein along with eight other letters of Paul.

Sometimes the canonicity of small books such as James, Jude, Second and Third John, and Second Peter is questioned on the grounds that these books are quoted very little by early writers. However, they make up all together only a thirty-sixth part of the Christian Greek Scriptures, and were therefore likely less circulated with less probability of being referred to. In this connection it may be observed that Second Peter is quoted by Irenaeus as bearing the same evidence of canonicity as the rest of the Greek Scriptures. (Irenaeus Against Heresies, Book V, chap. 23, par. 2, and chap. 28, par. 3) The same is true of Second John. (Book I, chap. 16, par. 3, and Book III, chap. 16, par. 8) Revelation, also rejected by some, was attested to by many early commentators, including Papias, Justin, Melito and Irenaeus.

The real test of canonicity, however, is not how many times or by what non-apostolic writer a certain book has been quoted. The contents of the book itself must give evidence that it is a product of holy spirit. Consequently, it cannot contain superstitions or demonism, or encourage creature worship. It must be in total harmony and complete unity with the rest of the Bible, thus supporting the authorship of Jehovah God. Each book must conform to the divine “pattern of healthful words,” and be in harmony with the teachings and activity of Christ Jesus. (2 Tim. 1:13; 1 Cor. 4:17) The apostles clearly had divine accreditation and they spoke in attestation of such other writers as Luke and James, the half brother of Jesus. By holy spirit the apostles had “discernment of inspired utterances” as to whether such were of God or not. (1 Cor. 12:4, 10) With the death of John, the last apostle, this reliable chain of divinely inspired men came to an end, and so with the Revelation, John’s Gospel and his epistles, the Bible canon closed.

The sixty-six canonical books of our Bible in their harmonious unity and balance testify to the oneness and completeness of the Bible, and recommend it to us as indeed Jehovah’s Word of inspired truth, preserved until now against all its enemies. (1 Pet. 1:25) For a complete listing of the sixty-six books that make up the entire Bible canon, the writers, when the books were completed, and the time covered by each, see “Table of Bible Books in Order Completed” under BIBLE.—See also individual article for each Bible book.

CAPER BERRY

[Heb., ʼavi·yoh·nahʹ].

Some translations of Ecclesiastes 12:5 render this Hebrew term as “desire” so that the passage is made to read “and desire fails.” (RS; see also AV; Ro.) However, many modern translators (AT; JB; JP; NW; NC [Spanish]) consider that the writer of Ecclesiastes, in this chapter describing the conditions of man in his old age, used a metaphor, as is the case throughout the description, and that ʼavi·yoh·nahʹ refers to the caper berry (as stimulating desire or appetite). This latter view finds support in the renderings of LXX, Vg, Sy and Arabic translations.

The caper plant (Capparis spinosa) may reach a height of three feet (0.9 meter) but usually spreads over the ground in vinelike fashion. It is abundant throughout the Palestine region, often growing from clefts in rocks or spreading over walls or ruins much like ivy. The spiny branches bear rich green oval leaves. The plant flowers in May with large white blossoms, yellow-tipped purple filaments extending out from their centers.

The berries of the plant are not used as much as the small young buds. These are pickled and eaten as a condiment to stimulate appetite, a quality for which they have been known from ancient times. Thus the writer of Ecclesiastes seems to be saying that, when an old man’s sense of taste diminishes and his appetite weakens, even the stimulation of the caper berry is unable to awaken his desire for food.

CAPERNAUM

(Ca·perʹna·um) [village of Nahum, or, town of consolation].

A city of major importance in Jesus’ ministry, located on the NW shores of the Sea of Galilee. It had a tax office, where Jesus called Matthew to be his disciple (Matt. 9:9), and perhaps a military post, for a centurion resided there. (Matt. 8:5) These indications, plus the fact that an attendant of the king, wealthy enough to have slaves, lived there (John 4:46-53), all seem to make it likely that Capernaum was of some size and importance and hence worthy of being called a “city of Galilee.”—Luke 4:31.

Two principal sites have been suggested as the original location of Capernaum. The ruins of Khan Minyeh, situated on the Sea of Galilee at the NE corner of the Plain of Gennesaret, were viewed by many as the probable location of Capernaum, but excavations there indicate that the ruins are of Arabic origin. This leaves Tell Hum, an extensive ruin somewhat less than three miles (4.8 kilometers) farther along the shore to the NE from Khan Minyeh, and about that same distance SW of the point where the Jordan River enters the Sea of Galilee. The coastal plain here is quite narrow, but in ancient times a road led from the Jordan down past Capernaum and through the Plain of Gennesaret to connect with the great Trunk Road, the major highway leading from Mesopotamia and Damascus, through Palestine and on to Egypt. A number of springs flow across the Plain of Gennesaret, emptying into the blue waters of the Sea of Galilee, and the large amount of vegetable matter these springs carry draws large numbers of fish, making the area an excellent location for fishermen.

Early in his ministry, following the marriage at Cana, where his first miracle was performed, Jesus, together with his mother, brothers and disciples, traveled from Cana down to Capernaum, spending a few days there before going up to Jerusalem for the Passover of the year 30 C.E.—John 2:12, 13.

Later, after beginning his great Galilean ministry and while again in Cana, Jesus performed a long-distance miraculous cure of the son of a member of the royal court of Herod Antipas, the sick child being healed in Capernaum though about sixteen miles (25.7 kilometers) away from Cana. (John 4:46-54) The news of this miracle evidently spread quickly to the neighboring towns so that, when Jesus moved on from Cana to his hometown of Nazareth, he could say to his listeners in that city that they would likely ask him to do in Nazareth “the things we heard as having happened in Capernaum.” (Luke 4:16, 23) Leaving Nazareth, where the people had attempted to kill him, Jesus “took up residence in Capernaum beside the sea in the districts of Zebulun and Naphtali” (Matt. 4:13-16; Luke 4:28-31), thereby fulfilling Isaiah’s prophecy (9:1, 2) that a great light would be seen in that region by those walking in darkness.

It was possibly along the nearby Plain of Gennesaret, SW of Capernaum, that Jesus again met Peter and Andrew (already his disciples, John 1:35-42) and gave them the express invitation to become his active followers in the ministry, doing the same thereafter for James and John. (Mark 1:16-21) Following this, Jesus preached in the synagogue of Capernaum, healing a demonized man in attendance, and from this strategically located city the report of his preaching and miracles “kept going out into every corner of the surrounding country.” (Luke 4:31-37; Mark 1:21-28) Fishermen Peter and Andrew’s home was in Capernaum, and here Jesus healed Peter’s mother-in-law, and after this the house was besieged by persons bringing ill and demon-possessed persons to him for healing.—Mark 1:29-34; Luke 4:38-41.

Following a preaching tour of Galilee, accompanied by the four disciples called from the Capernaum vacinity