SPIRITUAL CITIZENSHIP

In his letters Paul also refers to spiritual citizenship. He describes uncircumcised Gentiles who became spiritual Israelites as those who were at one time without Christ, alienated from Israel and strangers to the covenants, without hope, without God, but who are “now in union with Christ Jesus.” “Certainly, therefore,” he continues in this vein of thought, “you are no longer strangers and alien residents, but you are fellow citizens of the holy ones.” (Eph. 2:12, 13, 19) It was especially significant when Paul wrote to the Christians at Philippi, one of those cities granted Roman citizenship, where ten years earlier his Roman citizenship had been trampled on: “As for us, our citizenship exists in the heavens.”—Phil. 3:20.

CITY

A compact settled area, greater in size, population or importance than a town or village. The Hebrew word ʽir, translated “city,” occurs nearly eleven hundred times in the Scriptures. Sometimes the word qir·yahʹ (town) is used as a synonym or in a parallelism. For example, “After this you will be called City [ʽir] of Righteousness, Faithful Town [qir·yahʹ],” or “How is it that the city [ʽir] of praise has not been abandoned, the town [qir·yathʹ] of exultation?”—Isa. 1:26; Jer. 49:25.

“Settlements,” “dependent towns” and “villages,” also mentioned in the Hebrew Scriptures, were distinguished from “cities” and “towns” in that they were not walled-in communities, but were associated with the open country. (1 Sam. 6:18) If located in the suburbs or immediate vicinity of a fortified city or town these communities were described as “dependent towns,” literally “daughters” of the walled-in city. (Num. 21:25; see DEPENDENT TOWNS.) The law of Moses also made a legal distinction between the walled cities and towns, and the unwalled settlements and villages. If a person living in an unwalled settlement sold his house he always retained the right to buy it back, but, if unable to, it was returned to him during the year of Jubliee. When, on the other hand, a house in a walled city was sold, the seller had to repurchase it during the coming year or the property remained irrevocably that of the purchaser, except in the case of Levite cities. (Lev. 25:29-34) John called Bethlehem “the village where David used to be,” and Luke (aware that Rehoboam fortified the village) spoke of it as a city.—John 7:42; Luke 2:4; 2 Chron. 11:5, 6.

The first city builder seems to have been Adam’s murderous son Cain, who named the city after his son Enoch. (Gen. 4:17) If there were other cities before the Flood, their names disappeared along with them in the Deluge in 2370 B.C.E. After the Flood, the cities of Babel, Erech, Accad and Calneh in the land of Shinar formed the initial nucleus of Nimrod’s kingdom. He then expanded this by building Nineveh, Rehoboth-Ir, Calah and Resen (collectively described as “the great city”) to the N in the Mesopotamian valley. (Gen. 10:10-12) On the other hand, the patriarchs Abraham, Isaac and Jacob built no cities, but lived as temporary residents in tents even when visiting towns and villages in Canaan and Egypt; landless Abraham had to purchase the field of Machpelah just to bury his dead. (Heb. 11:9; Gen. 23:10-13) The spies who entered Canaan reported that there were many strongly fortified cities in the land.—Num. 13:28; Deut. 9:1.

PURPOSE IN BUILDING

There seem to be a number of contributing reasons why people began to build cities: for protection, industry, commerce and religion. Judging from the number and size of the temples uncovered by the archaeologists, religion was undoubtedly one of the principal motivations behind the construction of many ancient cities. The city of Babel with its religious tower is one example. “Come on!” said its builders to one another, “Let us build ourselves a city and also a tower with its top in the heavens, and let us make a celebrated name for ourselves, for fear we may be scattered over all the surface of the earth.” (Gen. 11:4-9) The danger of enslavement to warlike individuals bent on conquest was another compelling reason for fearful people to band together into cities. These cities they invariably fenced in and walled up; the gateways they closed at night and in times of danger.—Josh. 2:5; 2 Chron. 26:6.

The basic occupation of city dwellers was often agriculture and livestock raising carried on beyond the walls of the city, the typical farmer still residing inside the city rather than on his farm. Other segments of the community were employed in other pursuits, such as making weapons, chariots, armaments, pottery; or they occupied themselves in weaving and dyeing. The products of handicraft industries furnished the medium of exchange for needed raw materials, such as metals from far-off places, and this, in turn, stimulated commerce. The cities served as storage depots, trade centers and markets for distribution. Cities like Tyre, Sidon, and Joppa came to be primarily shipping and exchange centers between the traffic of the sea lanes and the overland caravans.—Ezek. chap. 27.

Many cities began as simple villages, grew to the size of a town or the status of a city, and sometimes became great city-states controlling the lives of hundreds of thousands of people. With such growth, government and judicial power became concentrated in the hands of a few political and military leaders, and quite often the overriding power dictating the urban way of life resided in a hierarchy of priestly despots. It was, therefore, a striking contrast when Israelite cities began to appear on the world stage, the rule of which was in the hands of theocratically appointed administrators bound by duty to enforce God-given constitutional laws. Jehovah was that nation’s King, Lawgiver and Judge, and when his visible representatives faithfully carried out their duties the people rejoiced.—Isa. 33:22; Ezra 7:25, 26; Prov. 29:2.

SELECTION OF SITES

Selecting the location for a city depended on several factors. Since defense was generally of prime importance, ancient cities were usually placed on high elevations. Though this exposed them to open view, they were difficult to reach. (Matt. 5:14) Coastal cities and those along the banks of rivers were exceptions. In addition to the natural barriers, often massive walls, or a complex of walls and towers and, in some instances, moats were built around the city. (2 Ki. 9:17; Neh. 3:1–4:23; 6:1-15; Dan. 9:25) As cities grew, it was sometimes necessary to extend the walls to include greater perimeters. Entrances through the walls were secured with strong gates that could withstand prolonged siege. (See FORTIFICATIONS; GATE, GATEWAY; WALLS.) Outside and beyond the walls were the fields, pasture grounds and suburbs that were often undefended during attack.—Num. 35:1-8; Josh. 21:41, 42.

A good nearby water supply was absolutely essential and not to be overlooked when selecting a site for a city. For this reason it was counted ideal when cities had springs or wells enclosed within their limits. In certain instances, notably Megiddo, Gezer and Jerusalem, there were underground water tunnels, aqueducts and conduits to bring water inside the walls from sources outside. (2 Sam. 5:8; 2 Ki. 20:20; 2 Chron. 32:30) Reservoirs and cisterns were often constructed for catching and holding water during the wet season for use at a later time. In some instances the terrain was honeycombed with cisterns, as each household endeavored to have its own supply of water.—2 Chron. 26:10.

Common aims and purposes in building ancient cities led to great similarities in their design and layout. And, since centuries of passing time have made little change, certain cities today are very much as they were two or three millenniums ago. On entering the gates one found himself in a large open place, the city’s marketplace, the public square, where all kinds of selling and buying were carried on, and where contracts were made and sealed before witnesses. (Gen. 23:10-18; 2 Ki. 7:1; Nah. 2:4) Here was the public forum where news was received and passed on (Neh. 8:1, 3; Jer. 17:19), where the elders and city judges held court (Ruth 4:1-10) and where the traveler might spend the night if perchance private hospitality was not extended to him. (Judg. 19:15-21) Sometimes other accommodations were available in the city for the visitor.—Josh. 2:1; Judg. 16:1; Luke 2:4-7; 10:35; see INN.

Certain cities were built to serve special functions, as, for example, Pithom and Raamses, built by Israelite slave labor as storage places for Pharaoh (Ex. 1:11), also Solomon’s storage cities, chariot cities and cities for his horsemen (1 Ki. 9:17-19), as well as Jehoshaphat’s storage cities. (2 Chron. 17:12) Forty-eight cities were set aside for the Levites, thirteen of which were for the priests, and six were designated refuge cities for the unintentional manslayer.—Num. 35:6-8; Josh. 21:19, 41, 42; see CITIES OF REFUGE; PRIESTS’ CITIES.

The size of many ancient cities can be figured from the remains of their walls, but population figures can only be estimated. Archaeologist W. F. Albright estimated that Debir covered seven and a half acres (3 hectares), having 150 to 250 houses. If this is taken as a basis, Megiddo with 13 acres may have had a population between 3,500 and 5,000, and Lachish with 18 acres, between 6,000 and 7,500. On the other hand, we are told that Nineveh was a very large metropolis: “Nineveh the great city, in which there exist more than one hundred and twenty thousand men who do not at all know the difference between their right hand and their left.”—Jonah 4:11; 3:3.

The name given to cities mentioned in the Bible usually had meaning and purpose—locality, character or ancestry of the inhabitants, even prophetic significance is disclosed by many of their names. (Gen. 11:9; 21:31; Judg. 18:29) Sometimes to distinguish one city from another of the same name, the tribal location was added, as in the case of “Bethlehem in Judah,” for there was also a Bethlehem in Zebulun. (Judg. 17:7; Josh. 19:10, 15) Enclave cities were those belonging to one tribe that lay in the territory of another tribe.—Josh. 16:9; see ENCLAVE CITIES.

FIGURATIVE USE

In the Hebrew Scriptures, cities are used figuratively. (Prov. 21:22; Jer. 1:18) We find Jesus employing cities in his illustrations (Matt. 12:25; Luke 19:17, 19), and Paul likewise in a figure of speech. (Heb. 11:10, 16; 12:22; 13:14) In Revelation cities are used to illustrate a number of things: “the holy city” trampled by the nations (11:2), “the great city” called Sodom and Egypt in a spiritual sense (11:8), the “great city, Babylon” (18:10-21; 17:18), and “the holy city, New Jerusalem, coming down out of heaven from God and prepared as a bride adorned for her husband.”—21:2-27; 22:14, 19; 3:12.

CITY RECORDER

[Gr., gram·ma·teusʹ, a scribe, a man of letters].

In the municipal government of the free cities in Asia Minor under the Roman Empire, the city recorder was the most important public officer. He was apparently elected to office by the people and functioned as the leading member of the municipal government. We might compare him in some respects to a modern-day mayor, as some translations render the term. Consequently, he was very influential in city affairs, and his dignified office was held in esteem by the people to a greater degree than is implied by the word “clerk” or “town clerk,” as used in several Bible translations at Acts 19:35, where gram·ma·teusʹ appears in a setting and connotation differing from its usual usage as applied to the Jewish scribes. The influence the city recorder wielded is shown by the manner in which this official in Ephesus quieted the mob that gathered against Paul and his companions.—Acts 19:35-41.

The city recorder had direct access to the proconsul of the province and served as the liaison between the city government and Rome’s provincial administration of which Ephesus was one of the centers. This enabled the recorder to act as a buffer between the power of the Roman authorities and the people of the city.

His duties and responsibilities included (1) supervision of the city archives, reading all legal and state papers that were to be made public at the assemblies, recording the minutes of senate and assembly sessions, properly recording and filing copies of decrees as well as treaties and edicts from Roman officialdom and, in general, attending to all the miscellaneous paper work associated with administering the affairs of the city. (2) He might draft into proper form the official decrees of the city council or senate before they were presented to the public assembly, and would preside as chairman at the assemblies.

As an executive officer, the city recorder also had charge of public funds, a responsibility that included administering the endowment for doles to the citizens, and, after the first century C.E., he had charge of the distribution of money gifts from the city treasury on the birthday of the Roman emperor Antoninus Pius. Another task he had was the supervision of the erection of monuments to various men that the senate and people decided to honor.

The high station of the city recorder is attested to by many inscriptions and coins. They reveal that he was allowed to mint coins for the city with his name on them. On occasion, he assumed some of the responsibilities of the commissioners of festivals and games.

In the Asian cities, the city recorder was held accountable by the Roman authority for maintaining law and order within his jurisdiction. This accounts, in part at least, for the concern expressed by the city recorder when the people of Ephesus had been stirred up by the Ephesian silversmiths over the preaching done by the apostle Paul. It was a disorderly mob, an illegal assembly in the theater. There was the liability of a charge of sedition, as the city recorder pointed out to the people. He feared that the Romans would hold him personally responsible.

In Grecian cities outside Asia Minor, there were public servants who had the title gram·ma·teusʹ, but they did not have the rank and dignity of those in the free cities of Asia Minor. Instead, they were true menial clerks or secretaries and, in many cases, were slaves.

CLAN

A large social group having a common inheritance, and resembling a tribe in magnitude.

In all three instances where the Hebrew word ʼum·mahʹ occurs, it refers to a large group of non-Israelites and is translated “clan” (NW). Descendants of Ishmael’s twelve sons, for example, are described as “clans” early in the history of that ethnic group. (Gen. 25:16) The same is true of the descendants of Midian. (Num. 25:15) The term is also found in Hebrew poetry at Psalm 117:1, where it appears in a parallelism with “nations.”

The Hebrew word sheʹvet, which is usually rendered “tribe,” is translated “clan” at Numbers 18:2 (NW). This is an exceptional instance to show the distinction the Hebrew text makes, for in this verse two different words (mat·tehʹ and sheʹvet) appear, both of which are normally rendered “tribe.”