to serve as food for the poor, although landowners, their slaves and their hired laborers were also entitled to eat of it. Evidently, though, the Israelites in general drew on their stored-up food supplies during the sabbath year.—Ex. 23:10, 11; Lev. 25:1-7, 11, 12, 20-22.

The principles relative to Israel’s obligations toward the poor as enunciated in the Law are repeated in other parts of the Hebrew Scriptures. (Job 31:16-22; Ps. 37:21; 112:9; Prov. 19:17; Eccl. 11:1, 2) Those acting with consideration toward the lowly one are pronounced happy and are assured of blessing. (Ps. 41:1, 2; Prov. 22:9) In Isaiah’s day unfaithful Israelites were called upon to divide their bread with the hungry, to bring the homeless into their houses and to clothe the naked, a course that would result in divine favor. (Isa. 58:6, 7) Through Ezekiel, concerning a righteous man Jehovah said: “To the hungry one he would give his own bread and the naked one he would cover with a garment.”—Ezek. 18:7-9.

Actually, there should have been no poor persons among the Israelites, for Jehovah promised to bless his people. But the absence of poverty was contingent on obedience to the Law. Therefore, because of their disobedience to God’s law or due to circumstances, the Israelites would always have the poor in their midst. (Deut. 15:4, 5, 11) Nevertheless, begging was evidently a rarity in ancient Israel, one of the calamities to come upon the wicked one being that his sons would be forced to beg.—Ps. 109:10; compare Psalm 37:25.

IMPROPER VIEWS OF GIVING

In time, the giving of gifts of mercy came to be viewed by the Jews, not only as meritorious in itself, but also as possessing power to atone for sins. Proverbs 11:4, which says: “Valuable things will be of no benefit on the day of fury, but righteousness itself will deliver from death,” came to be expounded as meaning, in harmony with Talmudic conception: “Water will quench blazing fire; so doth almsgiving make atonement for sins.” Apparently, when Jesus Christ was on earth giving was done by some with much showy display, causing him to speak out against such a practice in the Sermon on the Mount.—Matt. 6:2-4.

CHRISTIAN GIFTS OF MERCY

Jesus placed the emphasis on giving “as gifts of mercy the things that are inside.” He may thereby have had reference to the qualities of the heart, in view of his stress on justice and love immediately afterward. (Luke 11:39-42) Those of Jesus’ “little flock” were encouraged to “sell the things belonging to [them] and give gifts of mercy.” (Luke 12:32, 33) To the rich young ruler Jesus gave like counsel, adding, “and come be my follower.”—Matt. 19:16-22; Luke 18:18-23; see also John 13:29.

Organized relief measures

As a result of the addition of about 3,000 Jews and proselytes to the Christian congregation on the day of Pentecost, and continued increase in numbers shortly thereafter, an unusual situation arose among the Christians, calling for a temporary pooling of financial resources. This was to aid those who had come to the festival from distant lands to stay longer than they had originally intended so as to learn more about their new faith. Therefore, those having possessions sold them and turned over the proceeds of the sale to the apostles for distribution to those in need. “All those who became believers were together in having all things in common.” But the entire arrangement was voluntary, as is evident from Peter’s question to Ananias: “As long as it remained with you did it not remain yours, and after it was sold did it not continue in your control?”—Acts 2:41-47; 4:4, 34, 35; 5:4,

It appears that in time the extent of these relief measures diminished, but food was still distributed to needy widows in the congregation. In connection with this the Greek-speaking Jews began to murmur against the Hebrew-speaking Jews, “because their widows were being overlooked in the daily distribution.” To remedy the situation the apostles recommended that the congregation select seven qualified men “full of spirit and wisdom” to distribute the food. The men selected were placed before the apostles who, after prayer, appointed them. Their work doubtless entailed the handling of funds, making purchases, and keeping certain records in the distribution of the food supplies. (Acts 6:1-6) When Paul wrote his first letter to Timothy there was still an arrangement in operation for the care of widows, as is evident from his instructions to Timothy as to those qualifying for such financial assistance.—1 Tim. 5:3-16.

In addition to caring for widows, the first-century congregation organized relief measures in behalf of their needy brothers. Again, such organized giving, though directed by the congregation’s appointed men, was completely voluntary.—Acts 11:28-30; Rom. 15:25-27; 1 Cor. 16:1-3; 2 Cor. 9:5, 7.

Relative importance of material giving

Not only is encouragement given in the Christian Greek Scriptures to be hospitable and share with others, but providing for the members of one’s own family and aiding needy brothers are shown to be Christian requirements. (Rom. 12:13; 1 Tim. 5:4, 8; Jas. 2:15, 16; 1 John 3:17, 18) Sincere concern for the poor characterizes true religion. (Jas. 1:27; 2:1-4) In fact, as indicated by Jesus, the doing of good toward “the least of these [his] brothers” distinguishes the “sheep” from the “goats.” (Matt. 25:31-46) However, rather than being merely Acts of humanitarianism, the aid given by the “sheep” is prompted by their recognition of the position of Christ’s followers.—Matt. 10:40-42.

For giving to result in real happiness to the giver, it must be done without grumbling and not grudgingly or under compulsion. “God loves a cheerful giver.” (2 Cor. 9:7; Acts 20:35; 1 Pet. 4:9) Then, too, material gifts of mercy are not sufficient in themselves to gain everlasting life and were not given prime importance by Jesus Christ.—John 17:3; 12:1-8; see POOR; RELIEF; TITHE.

GIHON

(Giʹhon) [to burst forth].

1. One of the four rivers that branched out from the river issuing out of Eden, described as “encircling the entire land of Cush.” (Gen. 2:10, 13) It is not possible to identify this river today with any degree of certainty. It does not seem likely, at least from a geographical standpoint, that the “land of Cush” referred to here represents Ethiopia, as it frequently does in later accounts. It could refer to the land occupied by Cush prior to the scattering that occurred after the language confusion at Babel. (Gen. 11:9) Some would connect the Gihon with the Araxes River (called Gaihun er-Ras in Arabic), which takes its rise in the mountains to the NW of Lake Van and has its outlet in the Caspian Sea. Some lexicographers associate the “land of Cush” of Genesis 2:13 with the Kassites (Akkadian, kassu), a people of the plateau of central Asia mentioned in ancient cuneiform inscriptions but whose history remains quite obscure. (Koehler-Baumgartner, Lexicon in Veteris Testamenti Libros, p. 429; Brown, Driver and Briggs, Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament, p. 469) In another direction, it may be noted that certain Arabians on the Arabian Peninsula were called Kusi or Kushim, as indicated by Habakkuk 3:7, where Cushan is made parallel to Midian, evidently as the same place, or as a neighboring land. Thus there are various possibilities, but due to apparent topographical changes in the earth’s surface as a result of the global Deluge, no positive conclusion can be reached.

2. A spring having its fountainhead in a natural cave in the Kidron valley a short distance E of the upper end of the section of Jerusalem anciently called the “city of David.” (2 Chron. 32:30) It was a principal source of water for the city in ancient times, there being only two springs in the vicinity. The name Gihon is particularly appropriate for this spring inasmuch as it ‘gushes forth’ intermittently, as much as four or five times a day following a rainy winter, less frequently in the dry season.

The spring of Gihon is generally believed to be involved in the method employed by General Joab in penetrating the nearly impregnable Jebusite stronghold at Jerusalem, making possible its capture by David. (1 Chron. 11:6) Although the translation of the Hebrew text at 2 Samuel 5:8 presents certain problems, the usual rendering indicates the presence of a “water tunnel,” referred to by David when promoting the attack on the city. In 1867 C.E. Charles Warren discovered a water channel running back from the cave in which the spring of Gihon rises, and, after a distance of some fifty feet (15 meters), ending in a pool or reservoir. A vertical shaft cut in the rock above this pool extended upward forty feet (12 meters), and at the top of the shaft there was a place where persons could stand and let down containers by rope to draw water from the pool below. A hook-shaped, sloping passageway led back nearly 150 feet (46 meters) from the shaft up into the interior of the city. By this means it is believed that the Jebusites maintained access to their water source even when unable to venture outside the city walls due to enemy attack. Although the spring of Gihon is not directly mentioned in the account, it is suggested that Joab and his men daringly gained entrance to the city through this water tunnel.

Gihon was thereafter the site at which Solomon was anointed as king at David’s command. The ensuing noisy procession as the people joyously followed Solomon back to the city, while not visible from the spring called En-rogel, some 1,400 feet (427 meters) away from Gihon, could easily be heard by presumptuous Adonijah and his guests as they banqueted at En-rogel.—1 Ki. 1:9, 10, 33-41.

Archaeological excavations also revealed an old surface canal leading from the spring of Gihon southward along the slope of the “city of David.” This canal terminated in a pool at the base of the spur on which the ancient city was first located, at the spur’s southern end, toward the junction of the Tyropean valley with the Kidron valley. The canal was constructed with a minimal decline or rate of fall, resulting in a very gentle flow of water. This canal is probably the one referred to by Isaiah’s prophecy in the time of King Ahaz (761-745 B.C.E.), its ‘gently-going waters, being contrasted with the violent flood of invading Assyrians that Isaiah foretold would eventually attack Judah.—Isa. 8:5-8.

When the time of the Assyrian attack became imminent in Hezekiah’s reign (732 B.C.E.), King Hezekiah took measures to ensure that Jerusalem’s supply of water would not be cut off by the invading enemy. The record at 2 Chronicles 32:2-4, 30 shows that he shut off the flow of the Gihon through its previous channel and diverted the waters to the western side of the “city of David,” well within Jerusalem’s fortifications. Evidence of the manner in which this was accomplished came to light in 1880 C.E. when an inscription was found carved in the wall of a water tunnel terminating in what is presently known as the Pool of Siloam on the W side of the old “city of David.” The inscription, in early Hebrew script considered as dating from the eighth century B.C.E., described the excavation of the tunnel through solid rock by the two teams of men working toward each other from opposite ends. When the tunnel was completely cleared in 1910 it was found to measure some 1,749 feet (533 meters), with an average height of nearly six feet (2 meters) and at times narrowing to a width of only twenty inches (51 centimeters). It seems evident that this remarkable engineering feat is the result of Hezekiah’s measures to protect and maintain Jerusalem’s water supply originating in the Gihon.—See SILOAM.

King Manasseh, son of Hezekiah, extended Jerusalem’s fortifications during his reign (716-661 B.C.E.), building an outer wall for the “city of David” to the “west of Gihon,” hence not enclosing the spring of Gihon within its limits.—2 Chron. 32:33; 33:14.

The Gihon’s waters continue to flow today through the “Siloam Tunnel,” credited to Hezekiah.

[Picture on page 658]

Tyropean Valley

Valley of Hinnom

Kidron Valley

CITY OF DAVID

MT. ZION

Gihon

En-rogel

GILALAI

(Gilʹa·lai) [possibly, Jehovah has rolled away].

One of the Levite musicians in the procession arranged by Nehemiah at the inauguration of the rebuilt wall of Jerusalem in 455 B.C.E.—Neh. 12:27, 31, 36.

GILBOA

(Gil·boʹa).

A “mountain” traditionally identified with Jebel Fuquʽah, a crescent-shaped ridge of limestone hills lying E of the Plain of Esdraelon and extending first SE and then S. Ravines divide the range into several plateaus. Much of it is barren rock, with rugged channels in the northern and western parts, where chalk has been eroded. But wheat and barley are cultivated on the gradual western slopes. Also, pastureland, as well as fig and olive trees, can be found there. The northern side is the steepest and highest, rising to about 1,700 feet (518 meters) above sea level. The ancient name “Gilboa” seems to be preserved in the name of the village Jelbun, located on its southern slope, about six miles (10 kilometers) SW of Beth-shean.

Because of its strategic location E of the fertile plain of Esdraelon between the river Kishon and the Jordan valley, Gilboa figured in at least two major battles. At the “well of Harod,” commonly linked with the spring located on the NW spur of “Gilboa,” Gideon and his men encamped. (Judg. 7:1) Later, King Saul gathered his forces to Gilboa, and there suffered defeat at the hands of the Philistines. Three of his sons, Jonathan, Abinadab and Malchi-shua, were slain, and he himself committed suicide there.—1 Sam. 28:4; 31:1-4, 8; 2 Sam. 1:4-10, 21; 1 Chron. 10:1-8.