(Luke 23:33, AV, Dy), from the Latin calvaria (“a bare skull”).

The “Church of the Holy Sepulchre,” located within the present walls of Jerusalem, stands on the traditional site of Golgotha and Jesus’ tomb. But this identification is highly questionable. There is doubt whether this site actually was outside the walls of Jerusalem in the days of Jesus’ earthly ministry. Not until the fourth century C.E. was any attempt made to determine the place of Jesus’ impalement and his tomb. Emperor Constantine assigned this task to Bishop Macarius, who decided that Hadrian’s temple of Aphrodite (Venus) had been erected on the site. Constantine therefore ordered the demolition of this temple. A rock-cut tomb, said to have been found below the temple, was acclaimed as Jesus’ tomb, and about 280 feet (85 meters) away three “crosses” were supposedly discovered. To one of these, healing powers were attributed, and it was therefore claimed to be Jesus’ “cross.”

Another location that has been suggested is “Gordon’s Calvary,” situated on a cliff about 250 yards (229 meters) NE of the Damascus Gate. The cliff somewhat resembles a skull. About 100 yards (91 meters) to the W of “Gordon’s Calvary” lies a very large garden, the N end of which is bounded by a hill. A tomb containing only one finished grave is cut out of a huge stone protruding from the side of this hill. Although this site would fit the Scriptural record, it cannot be stated dogmatically that this is the correct location.

GOLIATH

(Go·liʹath) [possibly, conspicuous].

The giant from the city of Gath, champion of the Philistine army, who was killed by David. Goliath towered to the extraordinary height of six cubits and a span (9 feet 5.75 inches [c. 2.9 meters]). His copper coat of mail weighed 5,000 shekels (c. 126 pounds [c. 57 kilograms]) and the copper blade of his spear weighed 600 shekels (c. 15 pounds [c. 6.8 kilograms]). (1 Sam. 17:4, 5, 7) Goliath was one of the Rephaim; he may have been a mercenary soldier with the Philistine army.—1 Chron. 20:5, 8; see REPHAIM.

Not long after David’s anointing by Samuel, and after Jehovah’s spirit had left King Saul (1 Sam. 16:13, 14), the Philistines collected for war against Israel in Ephesdammim. As the battle lines of the Philistines and Saul’s army faced each other across the valley, the gigantic warrior Goliath emerged from the Philistine camp and loudly challenged Israel to supply a man to fight him in single combat, the outcome to determine which army should become the servants of the other. Morning and evening, for forty days, the army of Israel, in great fear, was subjected to these taunts. No Israelite soldier had the courage to accept the challenge.—1 Sam. 17:1-11, 16.

In taunting the armies of the living God Jehovah, Goliath sealed his own doom. The young shepherd David, upon whom was God’s spirit, met Goliath’s challenge. Goliath, preceded by his armor-bearer carrying a large shield, advanced, calling down evil upon David by his gods. To this David replied: “You are coming to me with a sword and with a spear and with a javelin, but I am coming to you with the name of Jehovah of armies, the God of the battle lines of Israel, whom you have taunted.” Then David slung a stone from his sling and it sank into Goliath’s forehead, striking him to the earth. David followed this up by standing on Goliath and cutting off his head with the giant’s own sword. This was promptly followed by a signal rout and slaughter of the Philistines.—1 Sam. 17:26, 41-53.

“Then David took the head of the Philistine and brought it to Jerusalem, and his weapons he put in his tent.” (1 Sam. 17:54) Undoubtedly David left the camp for his home at Bethlehem, traveling there by way of Jerusalem, where he left Goliath’s head, and then taking the weapons to his own dwelling place. While it is true that the stronghold of Zion was not captured until later by David (2 Sam. 5:7), the city of Jerusalem itself had long been inhabited by Israelites, along with Jebusites. (Josh. 15:63; Judg. 1:8) Later on, David evidently turned Goliath’s sword over to the sanctuary, as indicated by the fact that he got it from Ahimelech the priest at the time he was fleeing from Saul.—1 Sam. 21:8, 9.

A passage that has caused some difficulty is found at 2 Samuel 21:19, where it is stated: “Elhanan the son of Jaare-oregim the Bethlehemite got to strike down Goliath the Gittite, the shaft of whose spear was like the beam of loom workers.” The parallel account at 1 Chronicles 20:5 reads: “Elhanan the son of Jair got to strike down Lahmi the brother of Goliath the Gittite, the shaft of whose spear was like the beam of loom workers.”

Several suggestions have been made for an explanation of the problem. The Targum preserves a tradition that Elhanan is to be identified with David. The Soncino Books of the Bible, edited by Dr. A. Cohen, comment that there is no difficulty in the assumption that there were two Goliaths, commenting also that Goliath may have been a descriptive title like “Pharaoh,” “Rabshakeh,” “Sultan.” The fact that one text refers to “Jaare-oregim,” whereas the other reads “Jair,” and also that only the account in Second Samuel contains the term “Bethlehemite [Heb., behth hal·lahh·miʹ],” while the Chronicles account alone contains the name “Lahmi [ʼeth Lahh·miʹ],” has been suggested by the majority of commentators to be the result of a copyist’s error. For further information see JAARE-OREGIM; LAHMI.

GOMER

(Goʹmer) [completion].

1. Grandson of Noah and first-named son of Japheth, born after the Flood. (Gen. 10:1, 2; 1 Chron. 1:4, 5) He and his sons, Ashkenaz, Riphath and Togarmah, are listed among “the families of the sons of Noah according to their family descents” from whom the nations were spread about after the Deluge.—Gen. 10:3, 32.

The nation that descended from Gomer is historically associated with the ancient Cimmerians, an Aryan race called Gimirrai in the Assyrian inscriptions and who settled in the region N of the Black Sea. The Crimea (the peninsula of the southern Ukraine extending into the northern portion of the Black Sea) evidently derives its name from this basically nomadic people. In the eighth century B.C.E., during the reign of Assyrian King Sargon, they came through the Caucasus (the mountainous region between the Black and Caspian Seas), attacking the kingdoms of Urartu (Ararat) and Tabal (Tubal). Perhaps pressured by the Scythians or else subsequently reinforced by them, they penetrated eastern Asia Minor, where the Armenian name for Cappadocia, Gamir, doubtless reflects their invasion. Faced with a strong Assyrian Empire to the E, the Cimmerians pushed westward and warred against the Phrygians of central and NW Asia Minor. Esar-haddon claims to have defeated the Cimmerians, and Ashurbanipal later mentions their invasion of the kingdom of Lydia. They were finally expelled from Lydia by Lydian King Alyattes (predecessor of Croesus).

In Ezekiel’s prophecy concerning the assault by “Gog of the land of Magog” against the regathered people of Jehovah (the writing of which was evidently completed by 591 B.C.E.), “Gomer and all its bands” are listed among Gog’s forces along with Togarmah “of the remotest parts of the north, and all its bands.”—Ezek. 38:2-8; See GOG No. 2; MAGOG; TOGARMAH.

While mention in secular history of the Cimmerians (by that name) ends about the sixth century B.C.E., they are associated by many scholars with the Celtic (or, Gallic) peoples of Europe, thus indicating a movement in early times of the Gimirrai (or, Gomerians) westward into Europe proper. The Jewish historian Josephus connected the descendants of Gomer with the Gauls (called Galatians by the Greeks), a number of whom invaded Asia Minor during the third century B.C.E., giving their name to the later province of Galatia. Other ancient historians viewed the Galatians and the Cimmerians as the same race.—See GALATIA.

Traces of the name of Gomer (via that of the Cimmerians) are found in other Celtic tribes of northern Europe such as the Cimbri. The Cimbri at one time occupied the whole of the British Isles until finally driven into the districts where presently are found the Gael in Ireland and Scotland and the Cymry in Wales. Thus, The Anchor Bible in its commentary on Genesis (1964, p. 66) says concerning Gomer: “a name still in use apparently for the Welsh (Cymry).” Hence, if these historical relationships are accurate, it would seem likely that Gomer was the progenitor not only of the early Cimmerians but also of the later Celtic peoples as a whole.

In the opposite direction to such a westward migration, in the Chinese province of Sinkiang the tribe called the Tokhari are referred to as “linguistic cousins” of the Celts of western Europe.

Whatever is the actual connection of these various tribes and peoples with Gomer, the evidence presented clearly supports the Bible description of the dispersion and spread of the various families and nations from one central area in the Middle East.

2. The daughter of Diblaim who became the wife of Hosea in accord with Jehovah’s instructions to that prophet. (Hos. 1:2, 3) Gomer thereafter gave birth to three children, whose significant names were used by God to foretell the disastrous results of Israel’s spiritual adultery in the form of idolatry. In relating the birth of the first child, a son named Jezreel, the account states that Gomer “bore to him [Hosea] a son.” In connection with the births of the next two children, however, no reference is made to the prophet as the father, and this has been the basis for considering them as probably illegitimate. (1:3-9) Chapter 3, verses 1-3, appears to describe Gomer’s being brought back from an adulterous course to the prophet, being purchased as though a slave, thus illustrating Israel’s being received back by God on the basis of their repentance.

GOMORRAH

(Go·morʹrah) [submersion].

One of the “cities of the District” probably located near the southern end of the Dead Sea. (Gen. 13:12) Sodom and Gomorrah were apparently the chief of these cities. Their ruins are believed to be presently submerged under the waters of the Dead Sea, which now cover what in Abraham’s time was described as “a well-watered region . . . like the Garden of Jehovah.” (Gen. 13:10; see DISTRICT OF THE JORDAN.) During the time that Lot, Abraham’s nephew, resided in this fertile District, King Birsha of Gomorrah along with the kings of four other cities of the District rebelled against the domination of Chedorlaomer of Elam and three other allied kings. They were attacked and defeated, however, some of their soldiers falling into the numerous bitumen pits in the area. Sodom and Gomorrah were sacked by the Eastern kings, who took Lot captive.—Gen. 14:1-12.

More than thirteen years later (Gen. 16:15, 16; 17:1), the outcry of complaint about the wickedness of Sodom and Gomorrah became so great that Jehovah sent angels to inspect and to destroy them by a rain of fire and sulphur.—Gen. 18:20, 21; 19:24, 28.

The thoroughness of the destruction of these cities was afterward used as a symbol of complete and everlasting annihilation. (Deut. 29:22, 23; Isa. 1:9; 13:19; Jer. 49:18) Jehovah figuratively expressed the depth of wickedness to which the rulers and people of Judah and Jerusalem had sunk when he addressed them through the prophet Isaiah: “Hear the word of Jehovah, you dictators of Sodom. Give ear to the law of our God, you people of Gomorrah.”—Isa. 1:1, 10; Jer. 23:14.

The apostle Peter said that by reducing Sodom and Gomorrah to ashes God condemned them, “setting a pattern for ungodly persons of things to come.” (2 Pet. 2:6) This mention by Peter and references by Jesus Christ and Jude prove that Jesus and his disciples acknowledged these cities of the District as actually having existed, and that they accepted the Biblical account of them as true. Though the cities underwent “the judicial punishment of everlasting fire” (Jude 7), Jesus indicated that people of Sodom and Gomorrah would experience a resurrection to stand for judgment. He contrasted them with a city that rejected his disciples in their preaching of the Kingdom good news, saying: “It will be more endurable for the land of Sodom and Gomorrah on Judgment Day than for that city.”—Matt. 10:7, 14, 15.

GOODNESS

The quality or state of being good; moral excellence; virtue. Goodness is solid through and through, with no badness or rottenness. It is a positive quality, and expresses itself in the performance of good and beneficial acts toward others.

JEHOVAH’S GOODNESS

Jehovah God is good in the absolute and consummate sense. The Scriptures say: “Good and upright is Jehovah” (Ps. 25:8), and exclaim: “O how great his goodness is!” (Zech. 9:17) Jesus Christ, though he had this quality of moral excellence, would not accept “Good” as a title, saying to one who addressed him as “Good Teacher”: “Why do you call me good? Nobody is good, except one, God.” (Mark 10:17, 18) He thus recognized Jehovah as the ultimate standard of what is good.

When Moses asked to see His glory, Jehovah replied: “I myself shall cause all my goodness to pass before your face, and I will declare the name of Jehovah before you.” Jehovah screened Moses from looking upon his face, but as he passed by (evidently by means of his angelic representative [Acts 7:53]) he declared to Moses: “Jehovah, Jehovah, a God merciful and gracious, slow to anger and abundant in loving-kindness and truth, preserving loving-kindness for thousands, pardoning error and transgression and sin, but by no means will he give exemption from punishment.”—Ex. 33:18, 19, 22; 34:6, 7.

Here goodness is seen to be a quality that is for truth and for that which is right and clean, showing consideration for those who want goodness and righteousness, but not condoning or cooperating in any way with badness. On this basis David could pray to Jehovah to forgive his sins ‘for the sake of Jehovah’s goodness.’ (Ps. 25:7) Jehovah’s goodness, as well as his love, was involved in the giving of his Son as a sacrifice for sins. By this he provided a means for helping those who would want that which is truly good, and at the same time he condemned badness and laid the basis for fully satisfying justice and righteousness.—Rom. 3:23-26.

A FRUIT OF THE SPIRIT

Goodness is a fruit of God’s spirit and of the light from his Word of truth. (Gal. 5:22; Eph. 5:9) It is to be cultivated by the Christian. Obedience to Jehovah’s commands develops goodness; no man has goodness on his own merit. (Rom. 7:18) The psalmist appeals to God as the Source of goodness: “Teach me goodness, sensibleness and knowledge themselves, for in your commandments I have exercised faith,” and, “You are good and are doing good. Teach me your regulations.”—Ps. 119:66, 68.

GOODNESS BESTOWS BENEFITS

Goodness can also mean beneficence, the bestowing of beneficial things upon others. Jehovah desires to express goodness toward his people, as the apostle