For further details, see MANUSCRIPTS OF THE BIBLE; the book “All Scripture Is Inspired of God and Beneficial,” pages 298-330.

VESSELS

Hollow receptacles, some having lids (Num. 19:15), used to hold liquids or dry materials. (1 Ki. 17:10; Esther 1:7; Jer. 40:10) Many were made of earthenware, wood, metal or stone. (Lev. 6:28; 15:12; Num. 7:85; 1 Ki. 10:21; Matt. 26:7) Common containers included jars and vessels “of the bowl sort” (Isa. 22:24), bags or sacks (Gen. 42:25; Hag. 1:6), baskets (Mark 8:19, 20; 2 Cor. 11:33), skin bottles (Judg. 4:19; Luke 5:37, 38) and buckets.—Num. 24:7; John 4:11; see UTENSILS.

JARS, JUGS AND FLASKS

The jar, generally a deep cylindrical vessel having one, two or even four handles, was usually made of earthenware (Isa. 30:14; Lam. 4:2) and, sometimes, of stone. (John 2:6) A common large jar in the days of the kingdoms of Judah and of Israel may have been approximately twenty-five inches (c. 63.5 centimeters) high and had a diameter of about sixteen inches (c. 40.6 centimeters). Some jars were equipped with spouts. (2 Ki. 4:2) Jars might be kept on a stand (Lev. 11:35) and were used to hold such liquids as water or oil (1 Ki. 18:33; 2 Ki. 4:2), large ones often being employed for wine. (1 Sam. 10:3; 25:18; 2 Sam. 16:1; Jer. 13:12) Also dry materials, such as flour, were stored in jars. (1 Ki. 17:12) Sometimes documents, including deeds of purchase, were placed in earthenware jars or vessels for safekeeping. (Jer. 32:13-15) A number of ancient manuscripts were thus preserved in jars in the Qumran area near the Dead Sea, among the manuscripts being the well-known Dead Sea Scroll of Isaiah.

Water jugs (1 Sam. 26:11, 12, 16; 1 Ki. 19:6) and flasks (1 Sam. 10:1; 1 Ki. 14:3; 2 Ki. 9:3; Jer. 19:1, 10) were commonly made of earthenware.

BOWLS, DISHES AND PLATTERS

Bowls were used to hold such liquids as wine (Amos 6:6), milk (Judg. 5:25) and water. (Judg. 6:38) They were made of earthenware, stone and metal. Some banquet bowls were ceramicware. The ceramic type might have four handles, as in the days of the kingdoms of Judah and of Israel, when, as indicated by finds of archaeologists, these reportedly averaged about eight inches (c. 20.3 centimeters) in height and had a diameter inside the rim of approximately sixteen inches (c. 40.6 centimeters). In comparison with bowls, dishes and platters likely were shallow.—Ex. 25:29; 37:16; Num. 4:7; 7:84, 85; Matt. 14:8, 11; Mark 6:25, 28.

CUPS

The cup, a comparatively small vessel for drinking liquids, was usually made of earthenware, though sometimes of metal. (Prov. 23:31; Jer. 35:5; Mark 9:41) Some cups were molded to fit the hand. Usually they were handleless shallow bowls. Those equipped with handles could also serve as dippers.

FIGURATIVE USE

The congregator indicated that at death “the jar at the spring is broken.” Apparently this jar is the heart, which in death ceases to receive and transmit the flow of blood throughout the body. It becomes as useless as a broken jar that can hold no water. Also the brain, possibly alluded to under the figure of a “golden bowl,” ceases to function and undergoes dissolution, “gets crushed.”—Eccl. 12:6, 7.

Vessels

The Scriptures often refer to people as vessels. (Acts 9:15) Christians are frail earthen vessels entrusted with a glorious treasure, the ministry. (2 Cor. 4:7) Women are designated as the “weaker vessel.” Therefore, Christian husbands, by taking into consideration their wives’ physical and biological limitations as did Jehovah in the Law given to Israel (Lev. 18:19; 20:18), act “according to knowledge, assigning them honor as to a weaker vessel, the feminine one.”—1 Pet. 3:7.

An individual should keep separate from vessels “lacking honor” (persons who do not conduct themselves aright) and should pursue a course in harmony with Jehovah’s will. Thus he can be a “vessel for an honorable purpose, sanctified, useful to his owner, prepared for every good work.” (2 Tim. 2:20, 21) Jehovah’s refraining from bringing immediate destruction upon “vessels of wrath,” wicked persons, serves to spare righteously disposed ones because it gives them time to be molded as “vessels of mercy.”—Rom. 9:17-26.

Cup

The cup is often symbolic of divine retribution or of God’s anger. From such a cup wicked ones, cities or even peoples and nations might drink. (Ps. 11:6; 75:8; Isa. 51:17, 22; Jer. 25:12-29; 51:41; Lam. 4:21; Rev. 14:9, 10; 16:19; 18:5-8) Ancient Babylon, for example, was a symbolic “golden cup in the hand of Jehovah,” from which many nations had to drink the bitter potion of defeat.—Jer. 51:7.

When destruction was in store for Jerusalem, the inhabitants were told that people would not “give them the cup of consolation to drink on account of one’s father and on account of one’s mother.” This was possibly an allusion to a cup of wine given to a person mourning over his deceased parents.—Jer. 16:5-7; compare Proverbs 31:6.

The symbolic “cup” that Jehovah poured for Jesus Christ was His will for Jesus. Doubtless because of Christ’s great concern over the reproach his death as one charged with blasphemy and sedition would bring to God, Jesus prayed that this “cup” pass away from him, if possible. Nevertheless, he was willing to submit to Jehovah’s will and drink it. (Matt. 26:39, 42; John 18:10, 11) Jehovah’s assigned portion or “cup” for Jesus meant not only suffering but also Jesus’ baptism into death climaxed by his being resurrected to immortal life in heaven. (Luke 12:50; Rom. 6:4, 5; Heb. 5:7) It was, therefore, also “the cup of grand salvation” for Christ. (Ps. 116:13) According to the divine will, the “cup” that Jesus Christ was given to drink he also shares with the “little flock” of his joint heirs in the Kingdom.—Luke 12:32; Mark 10:35-40.

VILLAGE

See CITY.

VINE

A plant with long, slender twining stems that creep along the ground or climb by means of tendrils, the most common variety being the grapevine (Vitis vinifera). The Hebrew word geʹphen generally refers to the “wine vine” (Num. 6:4; Judg. 13:14), an exception being the “wild vine” that produced wild gourds.—2 Ki. 4:39.

The history of viticulture begins with the statement: “Noah . . . proceeded to plant a vineyard.” (Gen. 9:20) Melchizedek, king of Salem, brought out “bread and wine” to set before Abraham, proving that grapes were grown in the land of Canaan before 1933 B.C.E. (Gen. 14:18) Egyptian inscriptions depict grape picking and treading of winepresses in the second millennium B.C.E.; the Pharaohs of the time had official cupbearers. (Gen. 40:9-13, 20-23) The Egyptian wine-making industry, however, suffered a severe blow when Jehovah “went killing their vine” with a plague of hail.—Ps. 78:47; 105:33.

The spies who entered the Promised Land, “a land of . . . vines and figs and pomegranates,” brought back from the torrent valley of Eshcol a cluster of grapes so large that it had to be carried on a bar between two men. (Deut. 8:8; Num. 13:20, 23, 26) Grape clusters from this region are commonly said to weigh ten to twelve pounds (4.5 to 5.4 kilograms). One cluster was recorded as weighing twenty-six pounds (11.8 kilograms); another, more than forty-five pounds (20.4 kilograms).

Besides the torrent valley of Eshcol, other grape-growing regions mentioned in the Bible are En-gedi by the Dead Sea (Song of Sol. 1:14), Shechem (Judg. 9:26, 27), Shiloh (Judg. 21:20, 21), and, across the Jordan, Sibmah, Heshbon and Elealeh.—Isa. 16:7-10; Jer. 48:32.

PLANTING AND CARE

Vineyards were often planted on hillsides. It was customary to fence or wall in vineyards (Num. 22:24; Prov. 24:30, 31), and also to build booths or watchtowers (Isa. 1:8; 5:2) so as to protect the vineyards against thieves or animal intruders such as foxes and wild boars. (Ps. 80:8, 13; Song of Sol. 2:15) The Mosaic law allowed a passerby to eat his fill, but not to carry any off in a receptacle, for this would be thievery.—Deut. 23:24.

For convenience a winepress and vat were dug nearby, since usually the bulk of the crop was crushed to make wine. (Isa. 5:2; Mark 12:1; see WINE AND STRONG DRINK.) Of course, fresh grapes were eaten in considerable quantity and some sun-dried raisins were produced.—1 Sam. 25:18; 30:12; 2 Sam. 16:1; 1 Chron. 12:40.

Ancient vineyards were laid out in several different ways. Sometimes the vines were systematically planted in rows about eight feet (2.4 meters) or more apart in well-prepared soil. No other seeds were to be planted in a vineyard, according to the Mosaic law, though trees, such as the fig, might be planted there. (Deut. 22:9; Luke 13:6, 7) Sometimes the vines were allowed to grow along the ground down a hillside, with only the clusters being raised by forked sticks, but more often the vines were trained over wooden arbors or piles of stones. The expression ‘sitting everyone under his own vine and under his own fig tree’ became proverbial of peace and security.—1 Ki. 4:25; 2 Ki. 18:31; Isa. 36:16; Mic. 4:4; Zech. 3:10.

Pruning is necessary for production of good grapes. Jesus said that “every branch . . . not bearing fruit he takes away, and every one bearing fruit he cleans [by pruning], that it may bear more fruit.” (John 15:2) The pruning of productive branches and the cutting off of fruitless ones allow the plant to use its full strength in producing fruit of higher quality. Pruning in Bible lands began in the spring, about March, and was repeated again in April and May if necessary.—2 Chron. 26:10; Isa. 18:5; Luke 13:7.

A fruitful vine with proper care and good pruning may reach phenomenal age and size. For example, it is reported that one such vine in Jericho was over 300 years old, and had a trunk diameter of nearly eighteen inches (c. 46 centimeters). Sometimes these old vines reached a height of more than thirty feet (9 meters) and were veritable ‘vine trees.’ But in spite of such stature among the trees of the forest, such vine wood is not serviceable either as “a pole with which to do some work” or “a peg on which to hang any kind of utensil,” for it is too soft and not straight enough for lumber. Indeed, vine wood served as a fitting illustration of the unfaithful inhabitants of Jerusalem, good only as fuel for the fire, the eventual destiny, Jesus said, of unfruitful vines.—Ezek. 15:2-7; John 15:6.

The vintage season was one of song and gladness participated in by the grape gatherers and the treaders of the winepresses. (Judg. 9:27; Isa. 16:10; Jer. 25:30; see PRESS.) It was also a joyful time for the poor and alien residents of the land, who were permitted to glean the vineyards after the general harvest. (Lev. 19:10; Deut. 24:21) The converse was also true—when the vines had withered, or when they produced no grapes, or the vineyards became desolate wastes of thorns, these were calamitous times of great sorrow.—Isa. 24:7; 32:10, 12, 13; Jer. 8:13.

Sabbatical laws required owners to leave their vineyards uncultivated, unpruned and unharvested every seventh year and during the Jubilee. (Lev. 25:3-5, 11) But during those years any persons (owners, slaves, aliens, the poor), as well as the animals, were welcome to eat freely of what grew by itself.—Ex. 23:10, 11; Lev. 25:1-12.

ILLUSTRATIVE AND FIGURATIVE USE

The familiarity of the grapevine—the general knowledge people had of its cultivation, productivity, the vintage and the gleaning activities connected therewith—made it an object of frequent reference by Bible writers. Vineyards producing an abundance of fruitage reflected Jehovah’s blessing (Lev. 26:5; Hag. 2:19; Zech. 8:12; Mal. 3:11; Ps. 128:3); unproductive vines would be a manifestation of his disfavor. (Deut. 28:39) Israel was like grapes in the wilderness, but became like a degenerate vine (Hos. 9:10; 10:1), like a foreign vine producing wild grapes. (Isa. 5:4; Jer. 2:21) A common proverbial saying in the time of Jeremiah and Ezekiel referred to the fact that unripe grapes set the teeth on edge, due to their sourness.—Jer. 31:29, 30; Ezek. 18:2.

Attempts have been made to link the “vine of Sodom” with various plants found native to the Dead Sea area, but the setting of this expression in its only occurrence (Deut. 32:32) clearly indicates a figurative use. Sodom is repeatedly used in the Bible to represent moral corruption and wickedness.—Isa. 1:10; 3:9; Jer. 23:14.

Jesus spoke on a number of occasions about vineyards and their grapes. (Matt. 20:1-16) Just three days before his death he gave the illustration of the wicked cultivators.—Mark 12:1-9; Luke 20:9-16; see ILLUSTRATIONS.

When instituting the Lord’s Evening Meal, Jesus used wine, the “product of the vine,” as a symbol of his “blood of the covenant.” On that final night of his earthly life he also spoke of himself as “the true vine” and his Father as “the cultivator.” His disciples he likened to “the branches” who would be either pruned so as to bear more fruit, or lopped off completely.—Matt. 26:27-29; Mark 14:24, 25; Luke 22:18; John 15:1-10.

PROPHETIC USE

When Jacob blessed Judah, there was prophetic meaning in his words: “Tying his full-grown ass to a vine [geʹphen] and the descendant of his own she-ass to a choice vine [so·re·qahʹ], he will certainly wash his clothing in wine and his garment in the blood of grapes. Dark red are his eyes from wine.” (Gen. 49:8-12) The Hebrew word so·re·qahʹ denotes a red vine yielding the richest or choicest fruit. (Isa. 5:2; Jer. 2:21) A few days before the sign reading “The King of the Jews” was posted above him on the torture stake (Mark 15:26), Jesus Christ, who was of the tribe of Judah, rode into Jerusalem on a colt, the foal of an ass, thereby being presented to Jerusalem as her king. (Matt. 21:1-9; Zech. 9:9) While Jesus did not tie the colt of the she-ass to a literal vine, he did bind his kingly claims to a symbolic vine, a spiritual one, namely, God’s kingdom.—Compare Matthew 21:41-43; John 15:1-5.

In addition to this greater significance, Jacob’s prophecy had a literal application in the inheritance given to the tribe of Judah in the Promised Land. This included the mountainous region, the elevated ‘fruitful hillsides’ that were terraced in vineyards with their productive valleys cutting across the region.—Isa. 5:1.

In the book of Revelation, after the mention of “the harvest of the earth,” an angel is heard giving the command: “Gather the clusters of the vine of the earth, because its grapes have become ripe.” Thereupon “the vine of the earth” was gathered and hurled “into the great wine press of the anger of God.” This vine is different from the “true vine,” which produces fruit to God’s glory. The “vine of the earth” evidently produces hurtful fruitage, for it is destroyed at God’s command.—Rev. 14:18, 19.

VINEGAR

A sour liquid produced in ancient times by the fermenting of wine or other alcoholic drinks. Nazirites were forbidden to drink “the vinegar of wine or the vinegar of intoxicating liquor,” which indicates that vinegar (probably diluted) was sometimes consumed as a beverage. (Num. 6:2, 3) Harvesters dipped their bread into vinegar, perhaps finding it a refreshing condiment in the heat of the day.—Ruth 2:14.

The acetic acid contained in vinegar produces a sour taste in the mouth and causes one’s teeth to feel very sensitive. (Prov. 10:26) This acid content is apparent from the vigorous foaming action that results when vinegar is mixed with a weak alkali such as sodium carbonate, a reaction apparently alluded to at Proverbs 25:20.

When Jesus Christ was on earth the Roman soldiers drank a thin, tart or sour wine known in Latin as acetum (vinegar), or as posca when it was diluted with water. This was likely the drink offered to Jesus Christ while he was on the torture stake. Jesus refused the sour wine drugged with myrrh (or gall) that was presented to him to alleviate his suffering. (Mark 15:23; Matt. 27:34; compare Psalm 69:21.) However, just before he expired he received plain sour wine from a sponge when it was put to his mouth.—John 19:28-30; Luke 23:36, 37.

VINE OF SODOM

See VINE.

VINEYARD

See VINE.

VIPER

[Heb., ʼeph·ʽehʹ; tsiph·ʹo·niʹ; Gr., eʹkhi·dna].

A poisonous snake equipped with highly specialized fangs that can be tilted back against the roof of the mouth when they are not being used. The venom of vipers varies according to types, several of which exist in Palestine. One of the most dangerous is the little sand viper of the Jordan valley. The Hebrew ʼeph·ʽehʹ is commonly connected with the Arabic ʼafa, which refers to the carpet viper, a poisonous snake of the sandy Jericho plains.

The potency of the viper’s poison is alluded to at Job 20:16, where Zophar speaks of “the tongue of a viper” as having the power to kill. Shipwrecked on the island of Malta, the apostle Paul was collecting a bundle of sticks and laying them upon a fire when a viper came out and fastened itself on Paul’s hand. However, Paul “shook the venomous creature off into the fire and suffered no harm,” though the people standing by expected Paul to swell up with inflammation or suddenly die.—Acts 28:3-6.

ILLUSTRATIVE USE

The dangerous bite of the viper is used in an illustrative way at Proverbs 23:32, where the wise man describes the effects of the excessive use of wine, saying: “It bites just like a serpent, and it secretes poison just like a viper [Heb., tsiph·ʽo·niʹ].” Describing the wickedness that God’s people Israel had come to practice, the prophet Isaiah wrote: “The eggs of a poisonous snake are what they have hatched, . . . Anyone eating some of their eggs would die, and the egg that was smashed would be hatched into a viper.” (Isa. 59:5) Most snakes lay eggs, and, whereas the majority of the vipers are not oviparous (egg-laying), certain types are.

John the Baptist called the Pharisees and Sadducees “offspring of vipers.” (Matt. 3:7; Luke 3:7) And Jesus Christ called the scribes and Pharisees “offspring of vipers” because of their wickedness and the deadly spiritual harm they could inflict upon unsuspecting persons.—Matt. 12:34; 23:33.

VIPER, HORNED

[Heb., ʽakh·shuvʹ; sh^ephi·phonʹ].

The most dangerous of the viperous poisonous snakes that inhabit Palestine, distinguished by a small pointed horn above each eye. Raymond Ditmars reports that the horned viper (Cerastes cornutus) is found in N Africa from Algeria to Egypt and also in Arabia and S Palestine.

The venom of the horned viper is extremely potent and can be fatal to a man in half an hour. David fittingly speaks of violent men as having sharpened their tongue “like that of a serpent; the venom of the horned viper is under their lips.”—Ps. 140:3; see Asp.

Reaching a maximum length of about two and a half feet (.8 meter), the horned viper is of a pale, sandy hue and thus conceals itself in sand, waiting for prey. The untrained eye finds it most difficult to spot a lurking horned viper. In his book Reptiles of the World, Raymond Ditmars describes some horned vipers he saw in captivity: “Like all desert vipers, they were continually seeking to throw sand over their backs, thus hiding their bodies. If the cage were to be provided with several inches of fine sand, nothing would be seen of the snakes during the day but the tops of their heads. In shoveling sand the reptile flattens the body to such an extent, the lower edge acts as a scoop, then by a remarkable series of wavelike motions traveling the length of the body, on either side, the snake sinks into the sand or works this over its back.”—P. 234.

FIGURATIVE USE

The horned viper, which is alert and strikes with great swiftness, has been known to attack horses; thus the comparison given at Genesis 49:17 of the tribe of Dan with the “horned snake” is most fitting. There Jacob likened Dan to a serpent, a horned snake “that bites the heels of the horse so that its rider falls backward.” This was not to downgrade Dan, as if he were a vile snake in the grass fit only to be crushed under heel. Rather, in the capacity of a snake, Dan would serve a great national purpose. By lying in wait like the horned viper he could, in effect, bite the heels of the horse carrying an enemy warrior and cause it to rear up and dump its rider off backward. So, though small, Dan would be as dangerous as a horned viper to Israel’s disturbers.

VIRGIN

The Hebrew word b^ethu·lahʹ (from ba·thalʹ, meaning “to separate”) signifies, in a literal sense, a woman in a separated position, that is, one who has never been united to a man in marriage and has never had sexual intercourse. (Gen. 24:16; Deut. 32:25; Judg. 21:12; 1 Ki. 1:2; Esther 2:2, 3, 17; Lam. 1:18; 2:21) The Greek term par·theʹnos, however, can apply to both single men and single women.—Matt. 25:1-12; Luke 1:27; Acts 21:9; 1 Cor. 7:25, 36-38.

According to the Law, a man who seduced an unengaged virgin had to give her father fifty silver shekels, was to marry her (if her father permitted), and was not allowed to divorce her “all his days.” (Ex. 22:16, 17; Deut. 22:28, 29) But an engaged virgin, being viewed as already belonging to a husband, was to be stoned to death if she did not scream when sexually attacked. Her failure to scream would have denoted consent and thus would have constituted her an adulteress. (Deut. 22:23, 24; compare Matthew 1:18, 19.) The fact that an engaged virgin was regarded as being ‘owned’ by a husband also explains why Joel 1:8 could refer to a “virgin” as wailing over “the owner of her youth.”

As greater freedom in the Lord’s service is enjoyed by those retaining their virginity, the apostle Paul recommended singleness as the better course for Christians having self-control. (1 Cor. 7:25-35) However, regarding those lacking self-control, he observed: “If anyone thinks he is behaving improperly toward his virginity, if that is past the bloom of youth, and this is the way it should take place, let him do what he wants; he does not sin. Let them marry.”—1 Cor. 7:36.