that he will put ‘his spirit’ in his people so that they would become alive, spiritually speaking.

A similar symbolic vision is given at Revelation chapter 11. The picture is presented of “two witnesses” who are killed and their corpses allowed to lie on the street for three and a half days. Then “spirit [or breath, pneuʹma] of life from God entered into them, and they stood upon their feet.” (Rev. 11:1-11) This vision again draws on a physical reality to illustrate a spiritual revivification. It also shows that the Greek pneuʹma, like the Hebrew ruʹahh, may represent the life-giving force from God that animates the human soul or person. As James 2:26 states: “The body without spirit [pneuʹma] is dead.”—Kingdom Interlinear Translation.

Therefore, when God created man in Eden and blew into his nostrils the “breath [n^esha·mahʹ] of life” it is evident that simultaneously therewith God caused the life force or spirit (ruʹahh) to vitalize all the cells in Adam’s body.—Gen. 2:7; compare Psalm 104:30; Acts 17:25.

This life force is passed on from parents to offspring through conception. Since Jehovah was the original Source of this life force for man, and the Author of the procreation process, one’s life can properly be attributed to Him, though received not directly but indirectly through one’s parents.—Compare Job 10:9-12; Psalm 139:13-16; Ecclesiastes 11:5.

Life force or spirit is impersonal

As noted, the Scriptures refer to the ruʹahh or life force as being not only in humans but also in animals. (Gen. 6:17; 7:15, 22) Ecclesiastes 3:18-22 shows that man dies in the same manner as the beasts, for “they all have but one spirit [ruʹahh], so that there is no superiority of the man over the beast,” that is, as to the life force common to both. This being so, it is clear that the “spirit” or life force (ruʹahh) as used in this sense is impersonal. As an illustration, one might compare it with another invisible force, electricity, which may be used to make various types of machines operate—causing stoves to produce heat, fans to produce wind, computers to solve problems, television sets to produce figures, voices and other sounds—yet which electric current never takes on any of the characteristics of the machines in which it functions or is active.

Thus, Psalm 146:3, 4 says that when man’s “spirit [ruʹahh] goes out, he goes back to his ground; in that day his thoughts do perish.” The spirit or life force that was active in man’s body cells does not retain any of the characteristics of those cells, such as the brain cells and their part in the thinking process. If the spirit or life force (ruʹahh; pneuʹma) were not impersonal, then it would mean that the children of certain Israelite widows who were resurrected by the prophets Elijah and Elisha were actually in conscious existence somewhere in the period during which they were dead. So, too, with Lazarus, who was resurrected some four days after his death. (1 Ki. 17:17-23; 2 Ki. 4:32-37; John 11:38-44) If such had been the case, it is reasonable that they would have remembered such conscious existence during that period and upon being resurrected would have described it, told about it. There is nothing to indicate that any of them did so. Hence, the personality of the dead individual is not perpetuated in the life force or spirit that stops functioning in the deceased person’s body cells.

Ecclesiastes 12:7 states that at death the person’s body returns to the dust “and the spirit itself returns to the true God who gave it.” The person himself was never in heaven with God; what “returns” to God is therefore the vital force that enabled the person to live.

In view of the impersonal nature of the life force or spirit found in man (as also in the animal creation) it is evident that David’s statement at Psalm 31:5, quoted by Jesus at the time of his death (Luke 23:46), “Into your hand I entrust my spirit,” meant that God was being called upon to guard or care for that one’s life force. (Compare Acts 7:59.) That there be an actual and literal transmission of some force from this planet to the heavenly presence of God is not necessarily required. Even as the fragrant scent of animal sacrifices were spoken of as being ‘smelled’ by God (Gen. 8:20, 21), whereas such scent undoubtedly remained within earth’s atmosphere, so, too, God could ‘gather in,’ or could accept as entrusted to him, the spirit or life force in a figurative sense, that is, without any literal transmission of vital force from earth. (Job 34:14; Luke 23:46) One’s entrusting his spirit evidently means, then, that the person places his hope in God for a future restoration of such life force to himself through a resurrection.—Compare Numbers 16:22; 27:16; Job 12:10; Psalm 104:29, 30.

DOMINANT FEELING OR ACTIVATING FORCE

Ruʹahh and pneuʹma are both used to designate the force that causes a person to display a certain attitude or emotion or to take a certain action or course. While that force within the person is itself invisible, it produces visible effects. This use of the Hebrew and Greek terms rendered “spirit” and basically related to breath or air in motion is paralleled to a considerable degree by English expressions. Thus, we speak of a person as ‘putting on airs,’ or of manifesting an ‘air of calmness’ or of ‘having a bad spirit.’ We speak of ‘breaking one’s spirit,’ in the sense of discouraging and disheartening him. As applying to a group of persons and the dominant feeling among them we may talk of ‘getting into the spirit of the occasion’ of their being gathered, or refer to the ‘mob spirit’ that infects them. Metaphorically we may refer to an ‘atmosphere of discontent,’ or to ‘winds of change and revolution blowing through a nation.’ By all this we refer to this invisible force, this dominant feeling, working in persons, moving them to speak and act as they do.

Similarly, we read of Isaac and Rebekah’s “bitterness of spirit” resulting from Esau’s marriage to Hittite women (Gen. 26:34, 35), and the sadness of spirit that overwhelmed Ahab, robbing him of his appetite. (1 Ki. 21:5) A “spirit of jealousy” could move a man to view his wife with suspicion, even to bring charges against her of adultery.—Num. 5:14, 30.

The basic sense of a force that moves and gives “drive” or “thrust” to one’s actions and speech is also seen in the reference to Joshua as “a man in whom there is spirit” (Num. 27:18), and to Caleb as demonstrating a “different spirit” from that of the majority of the Israelites who had become demoralized by the bad report of ten spies. (Num. 14:24) Elijah was a man of much drive and force in his zealous service to God, and Elisha sought a “two parts” share in Elijah’s spirit as his successor. (2 Ki. 2:9, 15) John the Baptist demonstrated that same vigorous ‘drive’ and energetic zeal that Elijah had shown and this resulted in John’s having a powerful effect on his listeners; hence he could be said to have gone forth “with Elijah’s spirit and power.” (Luke 1:17) By contrast, Solomon’s wealth and wisdom had such an overwhelming and breathtaking effect on the queen of Sheba that “there proved to be no more spirit in her.” (1 Ki. 10:4, 5) In this same fundamental sense one’s spirit or activating force may be “stirred up” or “roused” (1 Chron. 5:26; Ezra 1:1, 5; Hag. 1:14; compare Ecclesiastes 10:4), become “agitated” or “irritated” (Gen. 41:8; Dan. 2:1, 3; Acts 17:16), “calmed down” (Judg. 8:3), be ‘distressed,’ made to ‘faint’ (Job 7:11; Ps. 142:2, 3; compare John 11:33; 13:21), be ‘revived’ or “refreshed.”—Gen. 45:27, 28; Isa. 57:15, 16; 1 Cor. 16:17, 18; 2 Cor. 7:13; compare 2 Corinthians 2:13.

Heart and spirit

The heart is frequently tied in with the spirit, indicating a definite relationship. Since the heart is shown to have the capacity for motivation due to being intimately related with emotions and affection (see HEART), it undoubtedly has a major share in the development of the spirit that one shows in the sense of a dominant feeling or activating force. Exodus 35:21 places heart and spirit in parallel in saying that “everyone whose heart impelled him, . . . everyone whose spirit incited him” brought contributions for the tabernacle construction. Conversely, on learning of Jehovah’s powerful works on behalf of Israel the Canaanites’ ‘hearts began to melt and no spirit arose among them,’ that is, there was no urge or activating force to initiate action against the Israelite forces. (Josh. 2:11; 5:1; compare Ezekiel 21:7.) References are also made to ‘pain of heart and breakdown of spirit’ (Isa. 65:14) or similar expressions. (Compare Psalm 34:18; 143:4, 7; Proverbs 15:13.) Evidently because of the forceful effect of the heart on the mind, Paul admonishes: “You should be made new in the force [pneuʹma] actuating your mind, and should put on the new personality which was created according to God’s will in true righteousness and loyalty.” (Eph. 4:23, 24) The apostle possibly had in mind the earlier exhortations through Ezekiel to “make for yourselves a new heart and a newspirit” (Ezek. 18:31; compare 11:19, 20); also David’s humble prayer on recovering from a sinful situation. (Ps. 51:10-12) By purifying their heart it would send forth a different motivation, along with a new spirit.—Contrast Deuteronomy 2:30; Daniel 5:20.

The vital necessity to control one’s spirit is strongly emphasized. “As a city broken through, without a wall, is the man that has no restraint for his spirit.” (Prov. 25:28) Under provocation he may act as the stupid one who impatiently ‘lets all his spirit out,’ whereas the wise one “keeps it calm to the last.” (Prov. 29:11; compare 14:29, 30.) Moses allowed himself to become unduly provoked when the Israelites “embittered his spirit” on one occasion, and he “began to speak rashly with his lips,” to his own loss. (Ps. 106:32, 33) Thus, “he that is slow to anger is better than a mighty man, and he that is controlling his spirit than the one capturing a city.” (Prov. 16:32) Humility is essential for this (Prov. 16:18, 19; Eccl. 7:8, 9), and the one “humble in spirit will take hold of glory.” (Prov. 29:23) Knowledge and discernment keep a man “cool of spirit,” in control of his tongue. (Prov. 17:27; 15:4) Jehovah makes “an estimate of spirits” and judges those who fail to ‘guard themselves respecting their spirit.’—Prov. 16:2; Mal. 2:14-16.

Spirit shown by a body of persons

As an individual may show a certain spirit, so too a group or body of people may manifest a certain spirit or dominant feeling and attitude. (Gal. 6:18; 1 Thess. 5:23) The Christian congregation was to be united in spirit, reflecting the spirit of their Head, Christ Jesus.—2 Cor. 11:4; Phil. 1:27; compare 2 Corinthians 12:18; Philippians 2:19-21.

Paul refers to “the spirit of the world” in contrast with God’s spirit. (1 Cor. 2:12) Under the control of God’s adversary (1 John 5:19), the world shows a spirit of catering to the desires of the fallen flesh, of selfishness, bringing enmity toward God. (Eph. 2:1-3; Jas. 4:5) Like unfaithful Israel, the world’s unclean motivation promotes fornication, either physical or spiritual, with idolatry.—Hos. 4:12, 13; 5:4; Zech. 13:2; compare 2 Corinthians 7:1.

SPIRITISM

The belief or doctrine that the spirits of the human dead, surviving the death of the physical body, can and do communicate with the living, especially through a person (a medium) particularly susceptible to their influence; spiritualism. Both the Bible and secular history reveal that spiritism existed from very early times. Egypt’s religion was permeated with it. (Isa. 19:3) And the religion of Babylon (which city was also the chief religious center for Assyria) was spiritistic.—Isa. 47:12, 13.

The Greek word for “spiritism” is phar·ma·keiʹa. W. E. Vine’s Expository Dictionary of New Testament Words (Vol. IV, pp. 51, 52) says of the word: “(Eng., pharmacy etc.) primarily signified the use of medicine, drugs, spells; then, poisoning; then, sorcery, Gal. 5:20, R.V., ‘sorcery’ (A.V., ‘witchcraft’), mentioned as one of ‘the works of the flesh.’ See also Rev. 9:21; 18:23. In the Sept[uagint], Ex. 7:11, 22; 8:7, 18; Isa. 47:9, 12. In sorcery, the use of drugs, whether simple or potent, was generally accompanied by incantations and appeals to occult powers, with the provision of various charms, amulets, etc., professedly designed to keep the applicant or patient from the attention and power of demons, but actually to impress the applicant with the mysterious resources and powers of the sorcerer.”

ITS SOURCE

A major feature of spiritism is claimed communication with the dead. Since the dead “are conscious of nothing at all,” communication with such dead persons is actually impossible. (Eccl. 9:5) God’s law to Israel forbade anyone’s inquiring of the dead, making the practice of spiritism a capital offense. (Lev. 19:31; 20:6, 27; Deut. 18:9-12; compare Isaiah 8:19.) And in the Christian Greek Scriptures the statement is made that those who practice spiritism “will not inherit God’s kingdom.” (Gal. 5:20, 21; Rev. 21:8) It, therefore, logically follows that any claimed communication with dead persons, if not a deliberate lie on the part of the claimant, must be from an evil source, a source that stands in opposition to Jehovah God.

The Bible clearly indicates that wicked spirits, demons, are this evil source. (See DEMON; DEMON POSSESSION.) A case in point is a “certain servant girl” in the city of Philippi. She used to furnish her masters with much gain by practicing “the art of prediction,” one of the things related to spiritism. (Deut. 18:11) The account plainly says that the source of her predictions was, not God, but a “demon of divination,” a wicked spirit. Hence, when the apostle Paul expelled the wicked spirit, this girl lost her powers of prediction.—Acts 16:16-19.

IN ISRAEL

Even though God had legislated strictly against spiritism, spirit mediums appeared from time to time in the land of Israel. These were probably foreigners who came into the land or some of those who had been spared from destruction by the Israelites. King Saul removed them from the land during his reign, but evidently toward the end of his rule some spirit mediums again began their practice. Saul demonstrated how far he had removed himself from God when he went to consult the “mistress of spirit mediumship in En-dor.”—1 Sam. 28:3, 7-10.

KING SAUL’S VISIT TO A MEDIUM

When Saul went to the medium, Jehovah’s spirit had for some time been removed from him, and, in fact, God would not answer his inquiries either by dreams or by the Urim (used by the high priest), nor by the prophets. (1 Sam. 28:6) God would have no more to do with him; and God’s prophet Samuel had not seen Saul for a long period of time, from before David’s anointing to be king. So it would be unreasonable to think that Samuel, even if still alive, would now come to give Saul advice. And God would certainly not cause Samuel, whom he had not sent to Saul before his death, to come back from the dead to talk to Saul.—1 Sam. 15:35.

That Jehovah would in no way approve or cooperate with Saul’s action is shown by his later statement through Isaiah: “And in case they should say to you people: ‘Apply to the spiritistic mediums or to those having a spirit of prediction who are chirping and making utterances in low tones,’ is it not to its God that any people should apply? Should there be application to dead persons in behalf of living persons? To the law and to the attestation!”—Isa. 8:19, 20.

Therefore, when the account reads: “When the woman saw ‘Samuel’ she began crying out at the top of her voice,” it obviously recounts the event