a Galilean, a carpenter’s son, with no rabbinical education? And did he not die an ignominious death? Where was his kingdom? And who were his apostles and followers? Mere fishermen and tax collectors. Furthermore, whom did Christianity draw, for the most part? The poor and lowly persons of the earth and, even worse, uncircumcised Gentiles, not of the seed of Abraham, were accepted. Why should anyone put his trust in this Jesus Christ, who had been put to death as a blasphemer and a seditionist? Why listen to his disciples, men unlettered and ordinary?—Acts 4:13.

The superiority of the Christian system of things

Some of the immature Christians may have become neglectful of their salvation through Christ. (Heb. 2:1-4) Or, they may have been swayed by the unbelieving Jews who surrounded them. Coming to their aid with masterful argument, using the Hebrew Scriptures, on which the Jews claimed to rely, the apostle shows irrefutably the superiority of the Christian system of things and of the priesthood and kingship of Jesus Christ. He Scripturally demonstrates that Jesus Christ is the Son of God, greater than angels (1:4-6), than Abraham (7:1-7), than Moses (3:1-6) and the prophets. (1:1, 2) In fact, Christ is the appointed heir of all things, crowned with glory and honor and appointed over the works of Jehovah’s hands.—1:2; 2:7-9.

As to priesthood, Christ’s is far superior to the Aaronic priesthood of the tribe of Levi. It is dependent, not on inheritance from sinful flesh, but on an oath of God. (Heb. 6:13-20; 7:5-17, 20-28) Why, though, did he endure such hardships and die a death of suffering? This was foretold as essential to mankind’s salvation and to qualify him as High Priest and the one to whom God will subject all things. (2:8-10; 9:27, 28; compare Isaiah 53:12.) He had to become blood and flesh and die in order to emancipate all those who through fear of death were in slavery. Through his death he is able to bring to nothing the Devil, a thing no human priest could do. (2:14-16) He, having so suffered, is a High Priest who can sympathize with our weaknesses and can come to our help, having been tested in all respects.—2:17, 18; 4:15.

Moreover, argues the apostle, this High Priest “passed through the heavens” and appeared in the very presence of God, not in a mere earthly tent or building that was only pictorial of heavenly things. (Heb. 4:14; 8:1; 9:9, 10, 24) He needed to appear only once with his perfect, sinless sacrifice, not over and over again. (7:26-28; 9:25-28) He has no successors, as did the Aaronic priests, but lives forever to save completely those to whom he ministers. (7:15-17, 23-25) Christ is Mediator of the better covenant foretold through Jeremiah, under which sins can really be forgiven, and consciences made clean, things that the Law could never accomplish. The “Ten Words,” the basic laws of the Law covenant, were written on stone; the law of the new covenant on hearts. This prophetic word of Jehovah by Jeremiah made the Law covenant obsolete, to vanish away in time.—8:6-13; Jer. 31:31-34; Deut. 4:13; 10:4.

It is true, the writer of Hebrews continues, that an awesome display of power was manifested at Sinai, demonstrating God’s approval of the Law covenant. But even more forcefully God bore witness at the inauguration of the new covenant with signs, portents and powerful works, along with distributions of holy spirit to all the members of the congregation assembled. (Heb. 2:2-4; compare Acts 2:1-4.) And as to Christ’s kingship, his throne is in the heavens itself, far higher than that of the kings of the line of David who sat on the throne in earthly Jerusalem. (1:9) God is the foundation of Christ’s throne and his kingdom cannot be shaken, as was the kingdom in Jerusalem in 607 B.C.E. (1:8; 12:28) Furthermore, God has gathered his people before something far more awe-inspiring than the miraculous display at Mount Sinai. He has caused anointed Christians to approach the heavenly Mount Zion, and will yet shake, not only the earth, but also the heaven.—12:18:27.

The letter to the Hebrews is of inestimable value to Christians and a strong encouragement to faith, hope, love and endurance. Without the letter, many of the realities concerning Christ as foreshadowed by the Law would be unclear. For example, the Jews had known all along from the Hebrew Scriptures that when their high priest went into the Most Holy compartment of the sanctuary in their behalf he was representing them before Jehovah. But they never appreciated this reality: that someday the real High Priest would actually appear in the heavens in Jehovah’s very presence! And as we read the Hebrew Scriptures, how could we realize the tremendous significance of the account of Abraham’s meeting with Melchizedek, or know so clearly what this king-priest typified? This, of course, is to cite only two examples out of the many realities that we come to visualize in reading the letter.

The faith that the letter builds helps Christians to hold onto their hope by means of “the evident demonstration of realities though not beheld,” and to keep looking to the “better place, that is, one belonging to heaven.” (Heb. 11:1, 16) At a time when many persons rely on antiquity, the material wealth and power of organizations and the splendor of rites and ceremonies and look to the wisdom of this world instead of to God, the divinely inspired letter to the Hebrews admirably helps to make the man of God “fully competent, completely equipped for every good work.”—2 Tim. 3:16, 17.

WRITERSHIP AND TIME, PLACE WRITTEN

Writership of the letter to the Hebrews is widely ascribed to the apostle Paul. It was accepted as an epistle of Paul by some early writers, among them Clement of Alexandria (c. 150-215 C.E.) and Origen (c. 185-254 C.E.). The Chester Beatty Papyrus No. 2 (P⁴⁶) (of the early third century C.E.) contains Hebrews among nine of Paul’s letters, and it is listed among “fourteen letters of Paul the apostle” in “The Canon of Athanasius,” of the fourth century C.E.

The writer of Hebrews does not identify himself by name. Even though all his other letters do bear his name, this lack of identification of the writer would obviously not rule out Paul. Internal evidence in the letter strongly points to Paul as its writer, and the place of writing as Italy, probably Rome. (Heb. 13:24) It was in Rome during the years 59 to 61 C.E. that Paul was first imprisoned. Timothy was with Paul in Rome, being mentioned in the apostle’s letters to the Philippians, the Colossians and Philemon, written from Rome during that imprisonment. (Phil. 1:1; 2:19; Col. 1:1, 2; Philem. 1:1) This circumstance fits the remark at Hebrews 13:23 about Timothy’s release from prison and the writer’s desire to visit Jerusalem soon.

The time of writing was before the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 C.E., for the temple at Jerusalem still stood, with services being performed there, as is evident from the argument in the letter. And Paul’s remark about Timothy’s being released reasonably fixes the time of writing about nine years earlier, namely, 61 C.E., when it is thought that Paul himself was released from his first imprisonment.

OUTLINE OF CONTENTS

I. Christ’s superior position (1:1–3:6)

A. Is heir of all things and the one through whom God made the systems of things (1:1, 2)

B. Is better than angels (1:3-14)

1. In being the Son of God (1:3-7)

2. As God’s King forever (1:8-12)

3. By exaltation to God’s right hand; angels only servants (1:13, 14)

C. We should pay unusual attention to things spoken by God through Christ (2:1-18)

1. Retribution cannot be escaped if we neglect salvation spoken through him and borne witness to by God (2:1-4)

2. Inhabited earth to come will be subjected to Christ, who, though made temporarily lower than angels, is now exalted for having tasted death for every man (2:5-9)

3. He is God’s Chief Agent of salvation (2:10-18)

a. He had to become blood and flesh, then die, in order to bring Devil to nothing and emancipate “all those who for fear of death were subject to slavery”

b. Not helping angels, spirits, but helping Abraham’s seed, who were blood and flesh

D. Christ, as Son over God’s house, is greater than Moses, who was merely faithful attendant (3:1-6)

II. Entering God’s rest possible at this time (3:7–4:13)

A. Israelites’ unfaithfulness in wilderness, failure to enter God’s rest, a warning to Christians (3:7–4:5)

B. Rest into which Joshua led Israel not the real ‘rest of God’; exercise of obedience needed to enter into sabbath resting that remains now for people of God (4:6-9)

C. Christian must rest from own (self) works, realizing God’s word discerns “thoughts and intentions of the heart” (4:10-13)

III. Superiority of Christ’s priesthood (4:14–7:28)

A. Christ is God-appointed, tested, compassionate High Priest “according to the manner of Melchizedek”; has “passed through the heavens” (4:14–6:3)

1. We should hold onto our confessing of him and approach with freeness of speech to the throne to obtain mercy (4:14–5:3)

2. Christ did not glorify or appoint himself; offered supplications to God, was heard for his godly fear (5:4-7)

3. Learned obedience through suffering, became responsible for salvation of obedient ones (5:8–6:3)

a. Therefore, immature ones must press on to maturity

b. Train perceptive powers to distinguish right and wrong

c. Progress from primary doctrine to learn deeper things about Christ

B. Those falling away impale Christ afresh, cannot be revived to repentance; hence, all are urged to continue showing industriousness and imitating faithful, patient ones (6:4-12)

C. Heirs of God’s promise to Abraham who continue to trust in Christ’s priesthood have an assured hope (6:13-20)

1. God’s promise and His oath are two unchangeable things in which it is impossible for God to lie (6:13-18)

2. Jesus’ entry as forerunner “within the curtain” provides heirs of promise the assurance of realizing that hope (6:19, 20)

D. Christ greater than Abraham; Jesus’ priesthood superior to Levitical priesthood (7:1-28)

1. Like that of King-Priest Melchizedek, who blessed Abraham and to whom Abraham (and thus yet-unborn Levi) paid tithes (7:1-10)

2. Perfection not through imperfect Levitical priesthood; change of priesthood was needed, also change of law (7:11-28)

a. Christ of tribe of Judah, not Levi

b. Christ’s priesthood not dependent on fleshly descent; he has indestructible life

c. He has no successors, is able to save completely all those approaching God through him

d. Sinful Levitical priests offered sacrifices for their own sins and those of people daily; sinless Christ offered himself up once; is perfected in office forever

IV. Superiority of new covenant (8:1–10:39)

A. Mediator and High Priest sits at God’s right hand in heavens, in “true tent” put up by Jehovah (8:1-3)

B. Sacred service rendered according to Law only typical of heavenly things (8:4-6)

C. New covenant foretold through Jeremiah (8:7-13; Jer. 31:31-34)

1. By it God’s laws are put in mind and written in heart (8:7-12)

2. God’s declared purpose makes former covenant become obsolete “near to vanishing away” (8:13)

D. Sacred tent and its services and sacrifices under former covenant were shadow and illustration of time now here (9:1–10:18)

1. Description of earthly tent, with furnishings, utensils (9:1-5)

2 High priest alone took blood into second compartment once a year (9:6-10)

a. Holy spirit thereby showed way into holy place not then manifest

b. Sacrifices made could not make men perfect as respects conscience

3. Christ entered into greater “tent” once with own blood, obtaining everlasting deliverance and cleansing consciences of believers (9:11-14)

4. Law covenant inaugurated with animal blood; new covenant validated by blood of Christ (9:15-22)

5. Christ entered heaven itself, appeared before God (9:23-28)

a. By one sacrifice put sin away once for all time

b. Will appear second time for judgment and for salvation of believers

6. Animal sacrifices ineffectual; prophecy foretold that God’s will was to abolish them and establish real sacrifice through Christ (10:1-10; Ps. 40:6-8)

7. After Christ’s one sacrifice, sat down at God’s right hand until time for enemies to be made footstool (10:11-18)

E. By this new and living way of entry may approach God by means of great High Priest with true hearts, clean consciences (10:19-39)

1. Hold fast to public declaration of faith (10:23)

2. Gather together, encouraging one another (10:24, 25)

3. Avoid falling into willful practice of sin, which brings destruction (10:26-31)

4. Endure by faith; do not shrink back to destruction (10:32-39)

V. Faith essential to please God, receive reward (11:1–12:17)

A. Definition of faith (11:1-3)

B. Examples of faith: Abel, Noah, Abraham, Moses and others (11:4-40)

1. Men of faith died, not getting fulfillment of promises (11:4-13)

2. They reached out for better place, one belonging to heaven (11:14-38)

3. Will be made perfect, but not apart from joint heirs with Christ (11:39, 40)

C. Faith requires discipline (12:1-17)

1. Surrounded by so great a cloud of witnesses, we should lay aside all weights in running race, looking intently at Jesus (12:1-3)

2. Do not belittle Jehovah’s discipline, which is for our good (12:4-11)

3. Make straight paths, pursue peace, sanctification (12:12-14)

4. Watch that no “poisonous” thing or person defiles others in congregation (12:15-17)

VI. Superiority of Christian’s position (12:18-29)

A. Not approaching a literal mountain, but a heavenly Zion and Jerusalem, assembly of angels, congregation of firstborn, God the Judge of all and Jesus the Mediator (12:18-24)

B. God will shake both earth and heaven to remove shakable things (12:25-27)

C. Christians receive kingdom that cannot be shaken (12:28, 29)

VII. Concluding exhortations and remarks (13:1-25)

A. Counsel on brotherly love, hospitality, keeping marriage honorable and dependence on Jehovah (13:1-6)

B. Imitate faith of those taking lead; avoid being carried away with strange teachings (13:7-9)

C. Suffer reproach of Christ, looking for city to come (13:10-14)

D. Offer sacrifices of praise, do good, share with others (13:15, 16)

E. Be submissive to those taking lead (13:17)

F. Writer requests prayer of brothers, promises visit to Jerusalem, closes with greetings (13:18-25)

See the book “All Scripture Is Inspired of God and Beneficial,” pp. 241-245.

HEBREW SCRIPTURES

The thirty-nine divinely inspired books from Genesis to Malachi, according to the popular present-day arrangement, constitute the major portion of the Bible.

The books of the Hebrew Scriptures as they appear in most of the common Bibles may be divided into three sections: (1) Historic, Genesis to Esther, seventeen books; (2) Poetic, Job to The Song of Solomon, five books; (3) Prophetic, Isaiah to Malachi, seventeen books. Such divisions are rather general, since the historical section contains poetic portions (Gen. 2:23; 4:23, 24; 9:25-27; Ex. 15:1-19, 21; Judg. chap. 5) as well as prophetic (Gen. 3:15; 22:15-18; 2 Sam. 7:11-16); the poetic section contains historical material (Job 1:1–2:13; 42:7-17); and in the prophetic section historical data is also found.—Isa. 7:1, 2; Jer. 37:11-39:14; 40:7–43:7.

By combining and rearranging these same thirty-nine books in a different order, the Jews counted only twenty-four or twenty-two books, and, according to their traditional canon, arranged them as follows: First, there was the Law (Heb., Toh·rahʹ), also called the Pentateuch, consisting of (1) Genesis, (2) Exodus, (3) Leviticus, (4) Numbers and (5) Deuteronomy. (See PENTATEUCH.) Second came the Prophets (Heb., N^evi·ʼimʹ), divided into the “Early Prophets,” (6) Joshua, (7) Judges, (8) Samuel (First and Second together as one book), (9) Kings (First and Second as one book), and the “Later Prophets,” subdivided into the Major prophets, (10) Isaiah, (11) Jeremiah and (12) Ezekiel, and (13) Twelve Minor Prophets (a single book composed of Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi). The third section was called the Holy Writings (Hagiographa or, in Hebrew, K^ethu·vimʹ), beginning with (14) Psalms, (15) Proverbs and (16) Job; then came the “Five Megilloth” or five separate scrolls, namely (17) The Song of Solomon, (18) Ruth, (19) Lamentations, (20) Ecclesiastes and (21) Esther, followed by (22) Daniel, (23) Ezra-Nehemiah (combined) and (24) Chronicles (First and Second together as one book). The book of Ruth was sometimes appended to Judges, and Lamentations to Jeremiah, to give twenty-two books, a total corresponding to the number of letters in the Hebrew alphabet, although this is not the conventional arrangement in Hebrew Bibles today.

Not all the early catalogues had the books of the Hebrew Scriptures arranged in the above order, and as found in the Septuagint and all extant Greek manuscripts. This is because at the time the individual books were in separate scrolls. To illustrate: In the Baraitha on the Scriptures in the Talmudic tractate Baba Bathra (which is the earliest extant Jewish list, dating back at least to the early second century C.E.), it is stated: “Our Rabbis have taught that the order of the Prophets is Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Isaiah, the Twelve.” (The Journal of Theological Studies, October 1950, p. 155) This may explain why Jeremiah precedes Isaiah in a number of Hebrew manuscripts written in Germany and France.

THE WRITERS

All the Hebrew Scriptures were written and compiled by Jews, members of the nation “entrusted with the sacred pronouncements of God.” (Rom. 3:1, 2) And, for the most part, these pre-Christian Scriptures were written in Hebrew, with the following limited portions in Aramaic: Genesis 31:47; Ezra 4:8 to 6:18 and 7:12-26; Jeremiah 10:11; Daniel 2:4b to 7:28. Aramaic words are also found in Job, certain Psalms, The Song of Solomon, Jonah, Esther, and in the Hebrew parts of Daniel. The book of Ezekiel likewise shows Aramaic influence.

Moses wrote and compiled the first five books of the Bible, and he was followed by some thirty-eight other writers and compilers including Joshua, Samuel, David, Solomon, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel, Ezra and Nehemiah. They lived over a period of eleven hundred years, from the sixteenth to the fifth century B.C.E., and came from various occupations, such as that of the shepherd, copyist, governor, king, prophet and priest.

Some of the Bible writers were eyewitnesses of the incidents they recorded, such as Moses’ experiences before Pharaoh. (Ex. 5:1–12:32) Certain historical data they gathered from previous records through diligent research, as when compiling the genealogical records. (1 Chron. chaps. 1 to 9) But many things, such as knowledge concerning the assembly of angelic hosts in heaven, and revelations in the field of prophecy, were matters beyond the realm of human knowledge and could be learned only by direct inspiration of God. This, and the perfect unity of the whole, despite being the composite work of many writers extending over so long a period of time with their various backgrounds, all attest to and demonstrate that Bible writers indeed “spoke from God as they were borne along by holy spirit.”—2 Pet. 1:21.

CANON OF HEBREW SCRIPTURES

The books of the Hebrew Scriptures do not appear in our Bibles in the order in which they were written. Joel, Amos and Jonah lived about two centuries or so before Jeremiah, Ezekiel and Daniel. Neither do the titles of the books always disclose their writer. The book of Job, for instance, was presumably written by Moses, the book of Ruth by Samuel. Details about the individual books, as to when and by whom each was written, are set out in the “Table of Bible Books in Order Completed” in the article BIBLE. See the articles on the individual books for contents, importance and significance, proof of authenticity and other information.

The canon of the Hebrew Scriptures was well established when Jesus Christ was on earth, as evidenced by his statements recorded in the Christian Greek Scriptures. For example, he referred to the three-section arrangement when he spoke of “all the things written in the law of Moses and in the Prophets and Psalms.” (Luke 24:44) His followers wrote of or spoke of “the public reading of the Law and of the Prophets,” “the Scriptures,” “the law of Moses and the Prophets,” “the holy Scriptures” and “the holy writings.”—Acts 13:15; 18:24; 28:23; Rom. 1:2; 2 Tim. 3:15; see CANON.

Noteworthy too is the fact that no apocryphal writings were admitted into the Hebrew canon. From the days of Ezra and Malachi, in the fifth century B.C.E, the completed canon of the Hebrew Scriptures has been guarded and protected against the inclusion