percentage of insects can be designated as harmful under present circumstances. The majority can be termed either as neutral or as directly or indirectly beneficial to man.

Even insects that attack trees and other plants are not always injurious but may be performing a valuable service. In Australia, for instance, the prickly-pear cactus rendered millions of acres of land practically unsuitable for agriculture. But this circumstance changed within a few years, chiefly because of introducing a variety of moth whose caterpillars mine the joints of this cactus. Then, too, the pruning of trees resulting from the activities of certain forest insects benefits man in contributing to better-quality lumber, reducing the fire hazard and making the forest more suitable as a home for wildlife.

Insects stand in an important relationship to plants. It has been estimated that 85 percent of flowering plants are either completely or partly dependent on insect pollination. Besides the honeybee and bumblebee, flies, beetles, moths, butterflies and other insects carry out this important function.

Insects also play a beneficial role as soil builders and scavengers. Dead plant and animal matter attracts many insects that help to break this down into different chemical combinations that can be used again as food by succeeding plant generations. The subterranean tunnels of insects aid water passage, capillary action and soil aeration. Their excreta and, eventually, their dead bodies fertilize the soil. The thickness of the rich topsoil is increased as insects continually bring up particles of subsoil to the surface.

Man has been able to use insects directly in research and to some degree in medicine. Dyes and shellac are produced from scale insects. In the Near East, insects, such as locusts, have for centuries been used as an item of diet. Were it not for the existence of insects, honey and natural silk would be unknown.

Then there is the good that insects perform in destroying, either as predators or parasites, other insects that are presently harmful to man. Besides the insect-eating insects, there are many birds, freshwater fishes, reptiles and small animals that now largely depend on insects for their food. Hence the disappearance of insects would place the life of these creatures in jeopardy.

Insects indeed occupy an important place in relation to the rest of the earthly creation. Observed Carl D. Duncan, professor of entomology and botany: “It is not too much to say that insects determine the character of man’s world to a far greater extent than he does himself, and that if they were suddenly to disappear completely the world would be changed so extensively that it is extremely doubtful that man would be able to maintain any sort of organized society whatever.”—Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution, 1947, p. 346.

For the insects mentioned in the Bible see ANT; BEE; CATERPILLAR; COCKROACH; CRICKET; FLEA; FLY; GADFLY; GNAT; GRASSHOPPER; LOCUST; MAGGOT; MOSQUITO; MOTH.

INSPECTION GATE

See GATE, GATEWAY.

INSPIRATION

The apostle Paul stated at 2 Timothy 3:16: “All Scripture is inspired of God.” The phrase “inspired of God” translates the compound Greek word the·oʹpneu·stos, meaning, literally, “God-breathed” or “breathed by God.”

This is the only occurrence of this Greek term in the Scriptures. Its use here clearly identifies God as the Source and Producer of the Sacred Scriptures, the Bible. Their being “God-breathed” finds some parallel in the expression found in the Hebrew Scriptures at Psalm 33:6: “By the word of Jehovah the heavens themselves were made, and by the spirit [or breath] of his mouth all their army.”

RESULTS FROM THE OPERATION OF GOD’S SPIRIT

The means or agency for the inspiration of “all Scripture” was God’s holy spirit or active force. (See SPIRIT.) That holy spirit operated toward or upon men to move them and guide them in setting down God’s message. Thus, the apostle Peter says of Bible prophecy: “For you know this first, that no prophecy of Scripture springs from any private interpretation. For prophecy was at no time brought by man’s will, but men spoke from God as they were borne along by holy spirit.” (2 Pet. 1:20, 21) The evidence shows that this was true of all the Bible writings, God’s spirit operating on the minds and hearts of the writers to carry them along to the goal purposed by God. King David said: “The spirit of Jehovah it was that spoke by me, and his word was upon my tongue.”—2 Sam. 23:2; compare Matthew 22:43.

Even as Jehovah’s spirit moved men or qualified them to perform other divine assignments—the making of priestly garments and equipment for the tabernacle (Ex. 28:3; 35:30-35), carrying the load of administration (Deut. 34:9), leading military forces (Judg. 3:9, 10; 6:33, 34)—so it enabled men to record the Scriptures. By means of that spirit, wisdom, understanding, knowledge, counsel, and power could be given them beyond what was normal and according to their particular need. (Isa. 11:2; Mic. 3:8; 1 Cor. 12:7, 8) Jesus assured his apostles that God’s spirit would help them, teaching, guiding and recalling to their minds the things they had heard from him, as well as revealing to them future things. (John 14:26; 16:13) This assured the truthfulness and accuracy of their gospel accounts, including many lengthy quotations of Jesus’ speeches, even though John’s gospel account, for example, was written scores of years after the death of Jesus.

Controlled by “the hand of Jehovah”

The Bible writers, therefore, came under Jehovah’s “hand,” or guiding and controlling power. (2 Ki. 3:15, 16; Ezek. 3:14, 22) Even as Jehovah’s “hand” could cause his servants to speak or to keep silent at appointed times (Ezek. 3:4, 26, 27; 33:22), so it could stimulate writing or act as a restraining force; it could prompt the writer to deal with certain matters or restrict him from including other material. The end product would, in every case, be that which Jehovah desired.

WAYS EMPLOYED IN DIVINE DIRECTION OF BIBLE WRITING

As the apostle states, God spoke “in many ways” to his servants in pre-Christian times. (Heb. 1:1, 2) In at least one case, that of the Ten Commandments or Decalogue, the information was divinely supplied in written form, merely requiring copying into the scrolls or other material used by Moses. (Ex. 31:18; Deut. 10:1-5) In other cases information was transmitted word for word, by verbal dictation. When presenting the large body of laws and statutes of God’s covenant with Israel, Jehovah instructed Moses: “Write down for yourself these words.” (Ex. 34:27) The prophets also were often given specific messages to deliver and these were then recorded, forming part of the Scriptures.—1 Ki. 22:14; Jer. 1:7; 2:1; 11:1-5; Ezek. 3:4; 11:5.

Among still other methods used for conveying information to the Bible writers were dreams and visions. Dreams, or “night visions,” as they were sometimes called, evidently superimposed a picture of God’s message or purpose on the mind of the sleeping person. (Dan. 2:19; 7:1) Visions given while the person was conscious were an even more frequently used vehicle of communication of God’s thoughts to the mind of the writer, the revelation being impressed pictorially upon the conscious mind. (Ezek. 1:1; Dan. 8:1; Rev. 9:17) Some visions were received when the person had fallen into a trance. Though conscious, the person apparently was so absorbed by the vision received during the trance as to be oblivious to all else around him.—Acts 10:9-17; 11:5-10; 22:17-21; see VISION.

Angelic messengers were used on many occasions to transmit the divine messages. (Heb. 2:2) Such messengers played a larger part in the transmission of information than is at times apparent. Thus, whereas the Law given to Moses is presented as spoken by God, both Stephen and Paul show that God used his angels in transmitting that legal code. (Acts 7:53; Gal. 3:19) Since the angels spoke in Jehovah’s name, the message they presented could therefore be called the “word of Jehovah.”—Gen. 22:11, 12, 15-18; Zech. 1:7, 9.

No matter what the particular means employed for the transmission of the messages, all parts of the Scriptures would be of the same quality, all of them being inspired or “God-breathed.”

THE WRITER’S PART IN THE PRODUCTION OF THE SCRIPTURES

The evidence indicates, however, that the men used by God to record the Scriptures were not merely automatons, simply recording dictated material. We read concerning the apostle John that the “God-breathed” Revelation was presented to him through God’s angel “in signs” and that John then “bore witness to the word God gave and to the witness Jesus Christ gave, even to all the things he saw.” (Rev. 1:1, 2) It was “by inspiration [literally, “in spirit”]” that John “came to be in the Lord’s day” and he was told: “What you see write in a scroll.” (Rev. 1:10, 11) So, God apparently saw good to allow the Bible writers to use their mental faculties in selecting words and expressions to describe the visions they saw (Hab. 2:2), while always exercising sufficient control and guidance over them so that the end product was not only accurate and true but also such as suited Jehovah’s purpose. (Prov. 30:5, 6) That personal effort on the part of the writer was involved is shown by the statement at Ecclesiastes 12:9, 10, there being a pondering, searching and arranging in order to present properly “delightful words and the writing of correct words of truth.”—Compare Luke 1:1-4.

This doubtless explains the different styles discernible when examining the books of the Bible, as well as the expressions that apparently reflect the background of the individual writer. The natural qualifications of the writers may have been a factor in God’s selection of them for their particular assignment; he may also have prepared them prior thereto to serve his particular purpose.

As evidence of this individuality of expression, Matthew, who had been a tax collector, makes numerous particularly specific references to numbers and money values. (Matt. 17:27; 26:15; 27:3) Luke, “the beloved physician” (Col. 4:14), on the other hand, uses distinctive expressions that reflect his medical background.—Luke 4:38; 5:12; 16:20.

Even where the writer speaks of receiving the “word of Jehovah” or a certain “pronouncement,” it may be that this was transmitted, not word for word, but by giving the writer a mental picture of God’s purpose, one that the writer would thereafter express in words. This is perhaps indicated by the writers’ speaking at times of ‘seeing’ (rather than ‘hearing’) the “pronouncement” or “the word of Jehovah.”—Isa. 13:1; Mic. 1:1; Hab. 1:1; 2:1, 2.

The men used to write the Scriptures therefore cooperated with the operation of Jehovah’s holy spirit. They were willing and submissive to God’s guidance (Isa. 50:4, 5), eager to know God’s will and leading. (Isa. 26:9) In many cases they had certain goals in mind (Luke 1:1-4) or were responding to an evident need (1 Cor. 1:10, 11; 5:1; 7:1) and God directed them so that what they wrote coincided with and fulfilled his purpose. (Prov. 16:9) As spiritual men, their hearts and minds were attuned to God’s will, they ‘had the mind of Christ’ and so were not setting down mere human wisdom nor a “vision of their own heart,” as false prophets did.—1 Cor. 2:13-16; Jer. 23:16; Ezek. 13:2, 3, 17.

It can be seen that the holy spirit would, indeed, have “varieties of operations” toward or upon these Bible writers. (1 Cor. 12:6) A considerable portion of the information was humanly accessible to them, sometimes already existing in written form, as in the case of genealogies and certain historical accounts. (Luke 1:3; 3:23-38; Num. 21:14, 15; 1 Ki. 14:19, 29; 2 Ki. 15:31; 24:5; see BOOK.) Here God’s spirit would operate to prevent inaccuracy or error from intruding into the Divine Record and also guide in the selection of material to be included. On the other hand, the information concerning the prehuman history of the earth (Gen. 1:1-26), or about heavenly events and activities (Job 1:6-12 and other texts), and prophecies, revelations of God’s purposes and of doctrines—these were not humanly obtainable and would need to be transmitted supernaturally by God’s spirit. As to wise sayings and counsel, even though the writer may have learned much from his personal experience in life and even more so from his own study and application of those parts of the Scriptures already recorded, the operation of God’s spirit would still be required to ensure the information’s qualifying as part of the Word of God that is “alive and exerts power . . . and is able to discern thoughts and intentions of the heart.”—Heb. 4:12.

This may be seen by the expressions the apostle Paul makes in his first letter to the Corinthians. In giving counsel on marriage and singleness he says at one point: “But to the others I say, yes, I, not the Lord . . . ” Again: “Now concerning virgins I have no command from the Lord, but I give my opinion.” And finally, regarding a widowed woman, he states: “But she is happier if she remains as she is, according to my opinion. I certainly think I also have God’s spirit.” (1 Cor. 7:12, 25, 40) The evident meaning of Paul’s statements is that he could quote no direct teaching by the Lord Jesus on certain points. Hence Paul gave his personal opinion as a spirit-filled apostle. His counsel, however, was “God-breathed” and so came to form part of the Sacred Scriptures, having equal authority with all the rest of those Scriptures.

There is clearly a distinction between the inspired writings of the Bible and other writings that, while manifesting a measure of the spirit’s direction and guidance, are not properly classed with the Sacred Scriptures. As has been shown, in addition to the canonical books of the Hebrew Scriptures there were other writings, such as official records concerning the kings of Judah and Israel, and these, in many cases, may have been drawn up by men devoted to God. They were even used in research done by those writers who were inspired to write part of the Sacred Scriptures. So, too, in apostolic times. In addition to the letters included in the Bible canon, there were doubtless many other letters written by the apostles and older men to the numerous congregations during the course of the years. While the writers were spirit-guided men, still God did not place his seal of guarantee distinguishing any such additional writings as part of the inerrant Word of God. The Hebrew noncanonical writings may have contained some error, and even the noncanonical writings of the apostles may have reflected to some degree the incomplete understanding that existed in the early years of the Christian congregation. (Compare Acts 15:1-32; Galatians 2:11-14; Ephesians 4:11-16.) However, even as God by his spirit or active force granted to certain Christians the “discernment of inspired utterances,” he could also guide the governing body of the Christian congregation in discerning which inspired writings were to be included in the canon of the Sacred Scriptures.—1 Cor. 12:10; see CANON.