to John as representing the righteousness and justice of the war that Christ will wage against all enemies on behalf of his God and Father, Jehovah. (Rev. 19:11, 14) Earlier, Christ’s taking kingly action and the calamities that follow are represented by different horsemen and their mounts.—Rev. 6:2-8.

John also saw armies of cavalry to the number of two myriads of myriads (200,000,000) empowered to execute the destructive judgments of God. The horses had death-dealing power in both their heads and their tails. All these horses apparently were under the direction of the four angels that had been bound at the Euphrates River.—Rev. 9:15-19.

HORSE GATE

See GATE, GATEWAY.

HOSAH

(Hoʹsah) [refuge].

1. A Merarite gatekeeper for the tent in which the ark of the covenant was put by David. (1 Chron. 16:1, 37, 38) He and his sons made up a division of gatekeepers assigned to the Shallecheth gate on the W of the sanctuary.—1 Chron. 26:10-19.

2. A city in Asher apparently near Tyre, but otherwise unknown.—Josh. 19:24, 29, 30.

HOSEA

(Ho·seʹa) [literally, Ho·sheʹa (Masoretic text), meaning “salvation; deliverance”].

Hebrew prophet and writer of the Bible book of Hosea; identified merely as the son of Beeri. Hosea served as Jehovah’s prophet during the reigns of Kings Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz and Hezekiah of Judah and Jeroboam II (son of Joash) of Israel, in the late ninth century and the first part of the eighth century B.C.E. (Hos. 1:1) Prophets of the same general period included Amos, Isaiah and Micah.—Amos 1:1; Isa. 1:1; Mic. 1:1.

Hosea may be identified as a prophet (and probably a subject) of the ten-tribe northern kingdom of Israel. That kingdom was the principal object of the declarations in the book of Hosea. Whereas Judah was named therein only fifteen times, and its capital city, Jerusalem, not even once, the book contains more than forty references to Israel, thirty-seven to Ephraim (Israel’s dominant tribe), and six to Samaria, the capital of the northern kingdom. Most of the other locations mentioned in the book were either a part of the northern kingdom or were on its borders.—1:4, 5; 5:1, 8; 6:8, 9; 10:5, 8, 15; 12:11; 14:6, 7.

Hosea, nevertheless, apparently attached primary importance to the kings of Judah, mentioning all four who reigned there during his ministry, while listing only the one ruling in Israel when he began his work. (Hos. 1:1) But, rather than indicating that the prophet came from, or was born in, Judah, this factor may show that Hosea, like other prophets of God, regarded only the Judean kings of David’s family as rightful rulers over God’s people, viewing the northern kingdom of Israel as a general religious and civil apostasy from Jehovah. Of course, this listing of rulers in both kingdoms facilitates more accurate dating of Hosea’s prophetic activity.—See HOSEA, BOOK OF.

HOSEA, BOOK OF

A book of the Hebrew Scriptures written by “Hosea the son of Beeri.” (Hos. 1:1) In it the writer’s domestic life is paralleled with God’s relationship to Israel. (Chaps. 1-3) The book shows that mere formal religious ceremony does not find acceptance with Jehovah. (6:6) It also highlights God’s mercy and loving-kindness.—2:19; 11:1-4; 14:4.

TIME AND PLACE OF COMPOSITION

Hosea began serving as a prophet at a time when Judean King Uzziah (829-777 B.C.E.) and King Jeroboam II of Israel (c. 844-803 B.C.E.) were contemporaries, and thus no later than 803 B.C.E., the apparent end of Jeroboam’s reign. (Hos. 1:1) Hosea’s prophetic ministry continued into the reign of King Hezekiah of Judah, who began to rule about 746 B.C.E. Hence, it spanned no less than fifty-seven years, though it doubtless covered some time in the reigns of Jeroboam and Hezekiah, thus being somewhat longer. Although Hosea recorded a prophecy concerning Samaria’s destruction (Hos. 13:16), he did not report its fulfillment, which he probably would have done if the writing of the book had extended to 740 B.C.E., the date of Samaria’s fall. Therefore, the book of Hosea was evidently written in the district of Samaria and completed sometime between 746 and 740 B.C.E.

SETTING

The book of Hosea is concerned primarily with the northern ten-tribe kingdom of Israel (also called “Ephraim” after its dominant tribe, the names being used interchangeably in the book). When Hosea began to prophesy during King Jeroboam’s reign, Israel enjoyed material prosperity. But the people had rejected knowledge of God. (Hos. 4:6) Their wicked practices included acts of bloodshed, stealing, fornication, adultery and the veneration of Baal and calf idols. (Hos. 2:8, 13; 4:2, 13, 14; 10:5) After King Jeroboam’s death, prosperity ceased and frightful conditions came into existence, marked by unrest and political assassination. (2 Ki. 14:29–15:30) Faithful Hosea also prophesied amid these circumstances. Finally, in 740 B.C.E., Samaria fell to the Assyrians, bringing the ten-tribe kingdom to its end.—2 Ki. 17:6.

HOSEA’S WIFE AND THE CHILDREN

At Jehovah’s command, Hosea took to himself “a wife of fornication and children of fornication.” (Hos. 1:2) This does not necessarily mean that the prophet married a prostitute or an immoral woman already having illegitimate children. It may indicate that the woman would become adulterous and have such children after her marriage to the prophet. Hosea married Gomer, who “bore to him a son,” Jezreel. (1:3, 4) Gomer later gave birth to a daughter, Lo-ruhamah, and thereafter to a son named Lo-ammi, both possibly being fruits of her adultery, as no personal reference is made to the prophet in connection with their births. (1:6, 8, 9) Lo-ruhamah means “she was not shown mercy,” and the meaning of Lo-ammi is “not my people,” these names indicating Jehovah’s disapproval of wayward Israel. On the other hand, the name of the firstborn child “Jezreel,” meaning “God will sow seed,” is applied to the people favorably in a restoration prophecy.—2:21-23.

After the birth of these children, Gomer apparently abandoned Hosea for her paramours, but it is not said that the prophet divorced her. Evidently she was later forsaken by her lovers and fell into poverty and slavery, for Hosea 3:1-3 seems to indicate that the prophet purchased her as though she was a slave and took her back as a wife. His relationship with Gomer paralleled that of Jehovah with Israel, God being willing to take back his erring people after they repented of their spiritual adultery.—2:16, 19, 20; 3:1-5.

Some Bible scholars have viewed Hosea’s marriage as visionary, as a trance or a dream never carried into action. However, the prophet did not say or indicate that a vision or a dream was involved. Others have considered the marriage to be an allegory or a parable. But Hosea did not use symbolical or figurative terminology when discussing it. Viewing this as an account of the actual marriage of Hosea to Gomer and of Gomer’s literal restoration to the prophet gives force and significance to the application of these things historically and factually to Israel. It does not strain the plain Biblical account and it harmonizes with Jehovah’s choosing of Israel, the nation’s subsequent spiritual adultery and the people’s restoration to God upon their repentance.

STYLE

Hosea’s writing style is concise, even abrupt at times. There are rapid changes of thought. The book contains expressions of great feeling and power in the form of rebuke, warning and exhortation, as well as tender pleas for repentance. Nor does it lack excellent figures of speech.—4:16; 5:13, 14; 6:3, 4; 7:4-8, 11, 12; 8:7; 9:10; 10:1, 7, 11-13; 11:3, 4; 13:3, 7, 8, 15; 14:5-7.

CANONICITY

The book of Hosea stands first in the order of the so-called “Minor Prophets” in common English Bibles, as well as in the ancient Hebrew and Septuagint texts. Jerome specified that one of the divisions of the Jews’ sacred books was The Book of the Twelve Prophets, which evidently included the book of Hosea to fill out the number twelve. Melito of the second century C.E. left a catalogue including these books, as did Origen and others.

HARMONY WITH OTHER BIBLE BOOKS

This book harmonizes with thoughts expressed elsewhere in the Bible. (For instance, compare Hosea 6:1 with Deuteronomy 32:39; Hosea 13:6 with Deuteronomy 8:11-14; 32:15, 18.) The book of Hosea refers to occurrences recorded in other parts of the Scriptures, such as incidents involving Jacob (Hos. 12:2-4, 12; Gen. 25:26; 32:24-29; 29:18-28; 31:38-41), Israel’s exodus from Egypt (Hos. 2:15; 11:1; 12:13), her unfaithfulness in connection with Baal of Peor (Hos. 9:10; Num. chap. 25) and the nation’s request for a human king.—Hos. 13:10, 11; 1 Sam. 8:4, 5, 19-22.

USE IN THE CHRISTIAN GREEK SCRIPTURES

Twice Jesus Christ quoted from Hosea 6:6, using the words “I want mercy, and not sacrifice.” (Matt. 9:13; 12:7) He referred to Hosea 10:8 when pronouncing judgment on Jerusalem (Luke 23:30), and this statement was used at Revelation 6:16. Paul and Peter both made use of Hosea 1:10 and 2:23. (Rom. 9:25, 26; 1 Pet. 2:10) Paul quoted Hosea 13:14 (LXX) when discussing the resurrection, in asking: “Death where is your victory? Death, where is your sting?” (1 Cor. 15:55) Compare also Hosea 14:2 with Hebrews 13:15.

It has been said regarding the book of Hosea: “Few O.T. [Old Testament] books (aside from Isaiah and Psalms) are quoted as often in the N.T. [New Testament]; more than 30 direct and indirect quotations from Hosea are contained in the Gospels and Epistles.”—Harper’s Bible Dictionary, 7th ed., 1961, p. 269.

FULFILLED PROPHECIES

The prophetic words of Hosea 13:16 concerning Samaria’s fall were fulfilled. Hosea’s prophecy also showed that Israel would be deserted by her lovers among the nations. (Hos. 8:7-10) Indeed, they were of no assistance when Samaria was destroyed and inhabitants of Israel became Assyrian captives in 740 B.C.E.—2 Ki. 17:3-6.

Hosea’s prophecy foretold that God would send a fire into the cities of Judah. (Hos. 8:14) In the fourteenth year of King Hezekiah’s reign, Assyrian King Sennacherib “came up against all the fortified cities of Judah and proceeded to seize them.” (2 Ki. 18:13) However, Hosea also prophesied that Jehovah would save Judah. (Hos. 1:7) This occurred when God frustrated Sennacherib’s planned attack on Jerusalem, Jehovah’s angel destroying 185,000 men of the Assyrian army in one night. (2 Ki. 19:34, 35) But a much more disastrous “fire” came when Jerusalem and the cities of Judah were destroyed by King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon in 607 B.C.E.—2 Chron. 36:19; Jer. 34:6, 7.

Nonetheless, in keeping with inspired restoration prophecies found in the book of Hosea, a remnant of the people of Judah and Israel was gathered together and emerged from the land of captivity, Babylonia, in 537 B.C.E. (Hos. 1:10, 11; 2:14-23; 3:5; 11:8-11; 13:14; 14:1-8; Ezra 3:1-3) Paul used Hosea 1:10 and 2:23 to emphasize God’s undeserved kindness as expressed toward “vessels of mercy,” and Peter also employed these texts. These apostolic applications show that the prophecies also pertain to God’s merciful gathering of a spiritual remnant.—Rom. 9:22-26; 1 Pet. 2:10.

Messianic prophecy is also found in the book of Hosea. Matthew applied the words of Hosea 11:1 (“out of Egypt I called my son”) to the child Jesus, who was taken into Egypt but was later brought back to Palestine.—Matt. 2:14, 15.

OUTLINE OF CONTENTS

I. Israel’s adultery and restoration; the parallel (1:1–3:5)

A. Hosea’s wife and the children she bears (1:1-9)

1. God commands Hosea to take ‘a wife an children of fornication, because Israel turns from following Jehovah’ (1:2)

2. Hosea complies, taking Gomer as his wife (1:3)

a. She bears him a son, Jezreel (1:3-5)

b. She gives birth to a daughter, named Loruhamah, for Jehovah will not show mercy to Israel, though He will to Judah (1:6, 7)

c. Gomer bears a son, named Lo-ammi “because you men are not my people” (1:8, 9)

B. Restoration foretold; Israel and Judah to be “collected together into a unity” (1:10–2:1)

C. Jehovah will punish Israel for fornication and withdraw blessings that were misused in Baal worship (2:2-13)

D. Restoration of Israel to Jehovah as husband and God (2:14-23)

1. She will be engaged to Him in righteousness, justice, loving-kindness, mercies and faithfulness (2:14-20)

2. Blessings will be restored, and in harmony with the meaning of Jezreel, ‘God will sow Israel like seed and show her mercy’ (2:21-23)

E. Like Hosea’s redeemed adulterous wife, ‘Israel will come back and look for Jehovah and for David their king’ (3:1-5)

II. Prophetic judgments against Ephraim (Israel) and Judah for unfaithfulness to Jehovah (4:1–13:16)

A. God will hold an accounting with Israel and Judah for their wrongdoing (4:1–5:15)

1. Violence prevails in Israel and knowledge of God is rejected by the people, resulting in divine rejection (4:1-8)

2. Jehovah will hold an accounting for their idolatry and harlotry (4:9-19)

3. Leaders and people have not acknowledged Jehovah; Ephraim and Judah will experience God’s judgment (5:1-15)

B. The people are urged to return to Jehovah; they seek worldly alliances and receive divine retribution (6:1–8:14)

1. Plea is made to return to Jehovah for healing (6:1-3)

2. Their loving-kindness is fleeting, whereas Jehovah delights in loving-kindness, not sacrifice, “knowledge of God rather than in whole burnt offerings” (6:4-6)

3. They have overstepped His covenant and practiced wickedness (6:7–7:7)

4. Ephraim has gone to Egypt and Assyria for help, rather than to Jehovah, and He will discipline them for their error (7:8-16)

5. They have sown wind and will reap a stormwind; Israel must be swallowed down and Judah’s cities will be burned (8:1-14)

C. Ephraim’s sinfulness will result in rejection by God, “and they will become fugitives among the nations” (9:1-17)

D. Israel, “a degenerating vine,” will suffer ruin (10:1-15)

E. Jehovah’s love for Israel (11:1-11)

1. God has loved Israel from his childhood 11:1-4)

2. Exile to Assyria foretold for unfaithfulness, but there will also be restoration (11:5-11)

F. Ephraim’s wickedness and its consequences (11:12–13:16)

1. Ephraim practices lying and deception; turns to Assyria and Egypt (11:12–12:1)

2. Ephraim’s faithful forefather Jacob an example that should cause Ephraim to return to God (12:2-14)

3. Ephraim practiced idolatry and forgot Jehovah, who will bring ruin, but will also redeem them from death and Sheol (13:1-14)

4. “The wind of Jehovah” will come and Samaria will fall (13:15, 16)

III. Return to Jehovah and its results (14:1-9)

A. Israel urged to come back to Jehovah with ‘bulls of lips,’ acknowledging that Assyria will not save them, and abandoning idolatry (14:1-3)

B. Jehovah will heal their unfaithfulness, show them love and grant them his blessing (14:4-8)

C. Jehovah’s ways are upright; righteous will walk in them, but transgressors will stumble in them (14:9)

See the book “All Scripture Is Inspired of God and Beneficial,” pp. 143-145.

HOSHAIAH

(Ho·shaiʹah) [Jehovah has saved].

1. Father of Jezaniah or Azariah, who was a contemporary of the prophet Jeremiah. (Jer. 42:1, 2; 43:2) In the Septuagint the name Azariah appears instead of Jezaniah at Jeremiah 42:1.

2. Apparently a prince of Judah who participated in the procession arranged by Nehemiah at the inauguration of the wall of Jerusalem.—Neh. 12:31, 32.

HOSHAMA

(Hoshʹa·ma) [Jehovah has heard].

One of the seven sons born to King Jehoiachin (Jeconiah) while in Babylonian exile.—1 Chron. 3:17, 18.

HOSHEA

(Ho·sheʹa) [salvation; deliverance].

1. One of the twelve sent by Moses to spy out the Land of Promise in 1512 B.C.E.; son of Nun of the tribe of Ephraim. Moses, however, preferred to call him Jehoshua, meaning “Jehovah is salvation.” (Num. 13:8, 16) In Greek the Septuagint has the name reading I·e·sousʹ (“Jesus”). As Moses’ successor he was generally called by the shortened Hebrew form “Joshua.”—Josh. 1:1.

2. The tribal prince of Ephraim during David’s reign; son of Azaziah.—1 Chron. 27:20, 22.

3. The Hebrew spelling of Hosea, Jehovah’s prophet, who lived in the eighth century B.C.E. during the reigns of Judah’s kings Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz and Hezekiah.—Hos. 1:1; see HOSEA.

4. Last king of the northern kingdom of Israel, which came to its end in 740 B.C.E.; son of Elah. He did what was bad in Jehovah’s sight, yet not to the same degree as his predecessors. (2 Ki. 17:1, 2) Hoshea had no hereditary claim to the throne, nor did he receive a special anointing from God to be king. Rather, it was by conspiracy against and murder of King Pekah that the usurper Hoshea gained the throne. Second Kings 15:30 states that Hoshea put Pekah to death and “began to reign in place of him in the twentieth year of Jotham.” Since Judean King Jotham is credited with only sixteen years (2 Ki. 15:32, 33; 2 Chron. 27:1, 8), this may refer to the twentieth year counting from the start of Jotham’s kingship, which would actually be the fourth year of the reign of Jotham’s successor Ahaz.—See JOTHAM No. 3.

It appears that Hoshea was not fully recognized as king over Israel until sometime later, however. Second Kings 17:1 states that, in the twelfth year of Ahaz, Hoshea “became king in Samaria over Israel for nine years.” So, it may be that at this point Hoshea was able to establish full control from Samaria. Possibly Assyrian backing at this point aided him, for the records of Assyrian King Tiglath-pileser (III) make the claim that he put Hoshea on the throne.—See chart of kings of Judah and Israel in CHRONOLOGY article; also the first four paragraphs under the heading “From the division of the kingdom to the desolation of Jerusalem and Judah (997 to 607 B.C.E.)” in the same article.

Shalmaneser, successor to Tiglath-pileser, compelled Hoshea to pay tribute, but it was not long before Hoshea sent messengers to So the king of Egypt appealing for assistance and subsequently withheld tribute from the Assyrians. Upon learning of this secret conspiracy, Shalmaneser put Hoshea in the house of detention and laid siege to Samaria in 742 B.C.E. Nearly three years later, in 740, the city fell, its inhabitants were carried off into exile, and the split-off ten-tribe kingdom of Israel came to its end.—2 Ki. 17:3-6.

5. One of the heads of the people whose descendant, if not himself, agreed to the Levitical proposal for a trustworthy arrangement in the time of Nehemiah.—Neh. 9:5, 38; 10:1, 14, 23.

HOSPITALITY

(Gr., phi·lo·xe·niʹa, love of strangers].

The cordial and generous reception and entertainment of guests or strangers.

IN ANCIENT TIMES

In patriarchal times, though Egyptians and others practiced hospitality, the Semites were most notable for this quality. Care for the traveler was viewed as an Integral part of living, and great was the courtesy extended the visitor, whether a stranger, friend, relative or invited guest. From the Bible accounts we learn that hospitality was customarily extended to a traveler. He was greeted by a kiss, particularly if a relative. (Gen. 29:13, 14) His feet were washed by a member of the household, usually a servant (Gen. 18:5), and his animals were fed and cared for. (Gen. 24:15-25, 29-33) He was often asked to stay for the night and sometimes even for several days. (Gen. 24:54; 19:2, 3) The visitor was considered to be under the householder’s protection during his stay. (Gen. 19:6-8; Judg. 19:22-24) On departure, he might be escorted part way on his journey.—Gen. 18:16.

The importance with which the extending of hospitality was viewed is seen in Reuel’s remarks when his daughters spoke of the “Egyptian” traveler (actually Moses) who had helped them in watering their flock. Reuel exclaimed: “But where is he? Why is it that you have left the man behind? Call him, that he may eat bread.”—Ex. 2:16-20.

In the cities

It is evident from the Bible accounts that, particularly in the cities, non-Israelites might not be always hospitable toward Israelites. (Judg. 19:11, 12) Also, in the cities hospitality was probably not offered as readily as in more isolated areas. However, a Levite man with his attendant and his concubine sat down after sunset in the public square of Gibeah, seemingly expecting to be offered a place to stay overnight. This indicates that hospitality, even in the cities, was quite common. (Judg. 19:15) In this instance, the Levite man remarked that he had provisions for his party as well as for his animals. (Judg. 19:19) He required shelter only. But the bad attitude of the Benjamites inhabiting this city made it inhospitable, as verified by what later occurred.—Judg. 19:26-28.

To servants of God

While hospitality was generally practiced, the fine hospitality depicted in the Bible accounts was undoubtedly due to the fact that, in most instances, the ones showing hospitality were servants of Jehovah. Especially marked were the hospitality and respect shown to those who were prophets or special servants of God. Abraham stood by the three angels for whom he provided a meal, while they ate. This seems to have been a token of respect for the men whom Abraham recognized to be angelic representatives of Jehovah. (Gen. 18:3, 8) And just as Abraham “ran” to prepare for his guests, Manoah showed eagerness in preparing food for the man whom he thought to be a man of God, but who was actually