point clear. However, the Ammonite and Moabite were precluded, not, as some say, because their forefathers were born of incest, but because they opposed Israel on their journey toward the Promised Land.—Deut. 23:3-6; see AMMONITES.

Fornication, adultery and incest were detestable to Jehovah. The adulterer and the incestuous one were to be put to death, and none of the daughters of Israel were to become prostitutes. (Lev. 18:6, 29; 19:29; 20:10; Deut. 23:17) Furthermore, it would cause confusion and a breakdown of the family arrangement for the illegitimate son to inherit; he could have no inheritance in Israel.

Jephthah has been charged by some commentators as being an illegitimate son, but this is not correct. The Bible does not say that he was illegitimate, but that “he was the son of a prostitute woman.” (Judg. 11:1) Like Rahab, who was a prostitute, but who married the Israelite Salmon, Jephthah’s mother doubtless married honorably, and Jephthah was no more an illegitimate son than was the son of Salmon and Rahab, who was a fleshly ancestor of Jesus Christ.—Matt. 1:5.

Likely Jephthah’s mother was a secondary wife of Gilead, and Jephthah may even have been Gilead’s firstborn. He could not have been a member of the congregation of Israel had he been illegitimate, and his half brothers, who had driven him out, could not legally have asked him to become their head. (Judg. 11:2, 6, 11) That Jephthah may have been the son of a secondary wife would not make him illegitimate. The son of a secondary wife had the same inheritance rights as the son of a favorite wife, as the Law states at Deuteronomy 21:15-17.

In the Christian Greek Scriptures the word noʹthos, meaning an illegitimate child, one born out of lawful wedlock, is used once, at Hebrews 12:8. As shown by the context, the writer likens God to a father who disciplines his son out of love. The writer therefore says, “If you are without the discipline of which all have become partakers, you are really illegitimate children, and not sons.” Those claiming to be spiritual sons of God but practicing sin and disobedience are cut off from the congregation of God and do not receive the discipline that God gives his legitimate sons to bring them to perfection.

ILLEGITIMATE FIRE AND INCENSE

At Leviticus 10:1 the Hebrew word za·rahʹ is used with regard to the presenting before Jehovah by Aaron’s sons Nadab and Abihu of “illegitimate fire, which he had not prescribed for them,” for which Jehovah executed them by fire. (Lev. 10:2; Num. 3:4; 26:61) Subsequently, Jehovah said to Aaron: “Do not drink wine or intoxicating liquor, you and your sons with you, when you come into the tent of meeting, that you may not die. It is a statute to time indefinite for your generations, both in order to make a distinction between the holy thing and the profane and between the unclean thing and the clean, and in order to teach the sons of Israel all the regulations that Jehovah has spoken to them by means of Moses.”—Lev. 10:8-11.

This seems to indicate that Nadab and Abihu were in a state of intoxication, which condition emboldened them to offer fire not prescribed. Such fire was likely illegal as to its time, place or manner of offering, or it could have been incense other than of the composition described at Exodus 30:34, 35. Their inebriated condition did not excuse their sin.

The same word, za·rahʹ, is used at Exodus 30:9, with reference to the burning of illegitimate incense on the altar of incense in the Holy Place.

ILLUSTRATIONS

[Gr., pa·ra·bo·leʹ, a placing beside or together].

The Greek expression has a wider latitude of meaning than our English words “proverb” and “parable.” Therefore pa·ra·bo·leʹ can well be translated “illustration,” an English word that likewise covers a wide range that can include “parable” and, in many cases, “proverb.” A “proverb” embodies a truth in expressive language, often metaphorically, and a “parable” is a comparison or similitude, a short, usually fictitious narrative from which a moral or spiritual truth is drawn.

That the Scriptures use the word pa·ra·bo·leʹ with a wider meaning than the English “parable” is shown at Matthew 13:34, 35, where Matthew points out that it had been foretold concerning Jesus Christ that he would speak with “illustrations” (NW), “parables” (AV, RS). Psalm 78:2, quoted by Matthew in this connection, refers to “a proverbial saying” (Heb., ma·shalʹ), and for this term the Gospel writer employed the Greek word pa·ra·bo·leʹ. As the literal meaning of the Greek term implies, the pa·ra·bo·leʹ served as a means of teaching or communicating an idea, a method of explaining a thing by ‘placing it beside’ another similar thing. (Compare Mark 4:30.) Most English translations simply use the anglicized form “parable” to render the Greek term. However, this translation does not serve to convey the full meaning in every instance.

For example, at Hebrews 9:9 and 11:19 most translations find it necessary to resort to expressions other than “parable.” In the first of these texts the tabernacle or tent used by Israel in the wilderness is called by the apostle Paul “an illustration [pa·ra·bo·leʹ, “figure,” AV; “similitude,” Ro; “symbolic,” AT, RS] for the appointed time.” In the second text Abraham is described by the apostle as having received Isaac back from the dead “in an illustrative way” (NW) (pa·ra·bo·leʹ, “figuratively speaking,” JB, RS). The saying, “Physician, cure yourself,” is also termed a pa·ra·bo·leʹ. (Luke 4:23) In view of this, a more basic term such as “illustration” (NW) serves for a consistent rendering of pa·ra·bo·leʹ in all cases.

Another related term is “allegory” (Gr., al·le·go·riʹa), which is a prolonged metaphor in which a series of actions are symbolic of other actions, while the characters often are types or personifications. Paul uses the Greek word for “allegorize” at Galatians 4:24, concerning Abraham, Sarah and Hagar. It is translated “allegory,” “allegorical utterance” (AV, AT), virtually a transliteration of the word, but is also rendered “symbolic drama” (NW).

The apostle John also used a distinct term (pa·roi·miʹa) as denoting “comparison” (John 10:6; 16:25, 29); it is variously translated “figure,” “figurative language,” “parable,” “proverb” and “comparison” (AT, AV, NW). Peter employed the same term with regard to the “proverb” of the dog returning to its vomit and the sow to rolling in the mire.—2 Pet. 2:22.

EFFECTIVENESS

Illustrations or parables as a powerful teaching device are effective in at least five ways: (1) They arrest and hold attention; few things command interest like an experience or a story. Who is not familiar with the illustrations of the prodigal son and of the one lost sheep? (2) They stir up the thinking faculty; one of the best mental exercises is to search out the meaning of a comparison, to get the abstract truths thus presented. (3) They stir emotions and, by the usually evident practical application of the truths to the hearer, reach the conscience and the heart. (4) They aid memory; one can later reconstruct the story and make application of it. (5) They preserve the truth, for they are always applicable and understandable in any time and age. This is because they deal with life and natural things, whereas mere words may change in meaning. This is one reason why the Bible truths remain in full clarity today, just as they were at the time they were spoken or written.

PURPOSES

The primary purpose of all illustrations is, as shown in the foregoing, to teach. But the illustrations of the Bible also serve other purposes: (1) The fact that a person sometimes has to dig to get their full, deep, heart-reaching meaning tends to turn back those who do not love God, but who have a mere surface interest and therefore do not desire the truth in their hearts. (Matt. 13:13-15) God is not gathering such persons. Illustrations moved the humble ones to ask for further explanation; the proud refused to do so. Jesus said: “Let him that has ears listen,” and though the majority of the crowds hearing Jesus went their way, the disciples would come and ask for explanation.—Matt. 13:9, 36.

(2) Illustrations conceal truths from those who would misuse them and who desire to entrap God’s servants. Jesus answered the Pharisees’ catch question with the illustration of the tax coin, concluding: “Pay back, therefore, Caesar’s things to Caesar, but God’s things to God.” His enemies were left to make the application themselves; but Jesus’ disciples fully understood the principle of neutrality there set forth.—Matt. 22:15-21.

(3) Because the hearer is left to apply the principles of the illustration to himself it can carry to him a clear message of warning and rebuke, at the same time disarming him so that he has no ground to retaliate against the speaker. In other words, as the saying goes, ‘If the shoe fits, wear it.’ When the Pharisees criticized Jesus for eating with tax collectors and sinners, Jesus replied: “Persons in health do not need a physician, but the ailing do. Go, then, and learn what this means, ‘I want mercy, and not sacrifice.’ For I came to call, not righteous people, but sinners.”—Matt. 9:11-13.

(4) Even when being used to give correction to a person, illustrations could be used to sidestep prejudice on the part of the hearer, keeping his mind from being beclouded by such prejudice, and thereby accomplishing more than would a mere statement of fact. Such was the case when Nathan found a hearing ear in reproving King David for his sin in connection with Bath-sheba and Uriah. (2 Sam. 12:1-14) Also, in the case of wicked King Ahab an illustration caused him, unknowingly, to weigh the principles of his own case when he had disobediently spared King Ben-hadad of Syria, an enemy of God, and to utter a judgment condemning himself.—1 Ki. 20:34, 38-43.

(5) Illustrations can motivate persons to take action one way or another, to ‘show their true colors,’ as to whether or not they are genuine servants of God. When Jesus said: “He that feeds on my flesh and drinks my blood has everlasting life,” “many of his disciples went off to the things behind and would no longer walk with him.” In this way Jesus ‘weeded out’ those who did not really believe from the heart.—John 6:54, 60-66.

PROPER VIEWPOINT AND APPROACH

Bible illustrations have more than one aspect. They set forth and illuminate principles, and they often have a prophetic meaning and application. Moreover, some had a prophetic meaning for the time when they were spoken or shortly thereafter, and some had, in addition, a fulfillment in the distant future.

There are two general misconceptions that can hinder the understanding of the illustrations of the Bible. One is the viewing of the illustrations as being merely good stories as examples or lessons. The parable of the prodigal son, for instance, is considered by some to be a mere piece of fine literature, the illustration of the rich man and Lazarus as an example of reward and punishment after death.

In this connection it may also be remarked that the illustrations, although drawn from life and natural things, did not necessarily take place in actuality. Although some illustrations begin with expressions such as: “Once upon a time,” “A man had,” “There was a man,” “A certain man was,” or similar phrases, they were devised by the speaker under influence of God’s spirit, and were what they are called, illustrations or parables. (Judg. 9:8; Matt. 21:28, 33; Luke 16:1, 19) Of Jesus Christ, it is said: “All these things Jesus spoke to the crowds by illustrations. Indeed, without an illustration he would not speak to them.”—Matt. 13:34; Mark 4:33, 34.

A second obstacle to understanding is the drawing of too fine an application of the illustration, trying to make every detail of the narrative of the literal events fit symbolically by arbitrary application or interpretation.

The proper approach is made, first, by reading the context, ascertaining the setting in which the illustration was spoken, asking, What were the conditions and the circumstances? For instance, when the rulers and people of Israel were addressed as “dictators of Sodom” and “people of Gomorrah,” it makes us think of a people who were gross sinners against Jehovah. (Isa. 1:10; Gen. 13:13; 19:13, 24) When the psalmist prays to Jehovah to do to the enemies of God and His people “as to Midian,” it calls to mind the complete rout of those oppressors of God’s people, over 120,000 being slain.—Ps. 83:2, 3, 9-11; Judg. 8:10-12.

Next, a knowledge of the Law, the customs and usages and the idiom of the day is often helpful. For example, a knowledge of the Law helps us to understand the illustration of the dragnet. (Matt. 13:47-50) The fact that fruit trees were taxed in Palestine during that time and that unproductive trees were cut down helps us better to understand why Jesus caused the unfruitful fig tree to wither, so as to use it for illustrative purposes.—Matt. 21:18-22.

Finally, the factors in an illustration should not be given an arbitrary meaning, one gained from a private view or from philosophy. The rule is set forth for Christians: “No one has come to know the things of God, except the spirit of God. Now we received, not the spirit of the world, but the spirit which is from God, that we might know the things that have been kindly given us by God. These things we also speak, not with words taught by human wisdom, but with those taught by the spirit, as we combine spiritual matters with spiritual words.”—1 Cor. 2:11-13.

An application of this rule can be demonstrated in connection with the prophetic illustration in Revelation chapter six. A white horse is the first of four mentioned here. What does it symbolize? We can turn to other parts of the Bible as well as to the context to get its significance. Proverbs 21:31 says: “The horse is something prepared for the day of battle.” White is often used to symbolize righteousness. God’s throne of judgment is white; the armies in heaven are on white horses and are clothed in white, clean, fine linen. (Rev. 20:11; 19:14; compare Revelation 6:11; 19:8.) We could conclude, therefore, that the white horse represents righteous warfare.

The horseman on the black mount has a pair of scales, and foodstuffs are being weighed out. Famine is here evidently pictured, for in the famine prophecy of Ezekiel he was told: “Your food that you will eat will be by weight . . . and they will have to eat bread by weight and in anxious care, and it will be by measure and in horror that they will drink water itself.” (Ezek. 4:10, 16) Often by understanding Biblical symbolic usage, such as in the case of animals mentioned in illustrations, one can get help and spiritual light.—See BEASTS, SYMBOLIC.

A good number of illustrations are understood by the Bible’s own explanation, often followed by a narrative of events in fulfillment of them. Among these, to name two, are: Ezekiel’s boring a hole through a wall, going out with his face covered (Ezek. 12:1-16; 2 Ki. 25:1-7, 11; Jer. 52:1-15), and Abraham’s attempt to sacrifice Isaac but receiving him back by God’s intervention (these illustrations were also actual occurrences, carried out in drama-like manner). (Gen. 22:9-13; Heb. 11:19) Others, particularly many spoken by Jesus Christ, are explained