• Immortality
    Aid to Bible Understanding

    • is seen from the apostle Paul’s association of incorruptibility with the immortality they attain. (1 Cor. 15:42-49) Over them “the second death has no authority.”—Rev. 20:6; see INCORRUPTION.

      This grant of immortality to the Kingdom heirs is all the more transcendental and remarkable, in view of the fact that even God’s angels are shown to be mortal, despite their possessing spirit, not carnal, bodies. Angelic mortality is evident in view of the judgment of death entered against the spirit son who became God’s adversary, or Satan, and also against those other angels who followed that Satanic course and “did not keep their original position but forsook their own proper dwelling place.” (Jude 6; Matt. 25:41; Rev. 20:10, 14) So the grant of “indestructible life” (Heb. 7:16) or “indissoluble life” to those Christians who gain the privilege of reigning with God’s Son in the heavenly kingdom marvelously demonstrates God’s confidence in them.—See ANGEL; HEAVEN (The way to heavenly life); LIFE.

  • Impalement
    Aid to Bible Understanding

    • IMPALEMENT

      (im·paleʹment).

      In the literal sense, the fastening of a victim either dead or alive to a stake. The execution of Jesus Christ is the best-known case. (Luke 24:20; John 19:14-16; Acts 2:23, 36) Impalements by nations in ancient times were carried out in a variety of ways.

      The Assyrians, noted for their savage warfare, impaled captives by hanging their nude bodies atop pointed stakes that were run up through the abdomens into the chest cavities of the victims. Several monumental reliefs have been found, one such depicting the Assyrian assault and conquest of Lachish, on which this method of impalement is shown.—2 Ki. 19:8.

      The Persians also used impalement as a form of punishment. Some say the Persians customarily first beheaded or flayed those they impaled. Darius the Great forbade interference with the rebuilding of the Jerusalem temple, and any violator of that decree was to be impaled on a timber pulled out of his own house. (Ezra 6:11) During the reign of Darius’ son, Ahasuerus (Xerxes I), two of the palace doorkeepers were hanged or impaled on a stake, the usual punishment meted out to traitors by the Persians. (Esther 2:21-23) Haman and his ten sons were similarly hanged on a stake. (Esther 5:14; 6:4; 7:9, 10; 9:10, 13, 14, 25) Herodotus (III, 125, 159; IV, 43) also cites other examples of Persian impalements.

      It was Jewish law that those guilty of such heinous crimes as blasphemy or idolatry were first killed by stoning, beheading or by some other method, then their dead bodies were exposed on stakes or trees as warning examples to others. (Deut. 21:22, 23; Josh. 8:29; 10:26; 2 Sam. 21:6, 9) The Egyptians may also have first killed their criminals before fastening them to stakes, as indicated by Joseph’s prophetic words to Pharaoh’s chief baker: “Pharaoh will lift up your head from off you and will certainly hang you upon a stake.”—Gen. 40:19, 22; 41:13.

      The Greeks and Romans, it is said, adopted the practice of impalement from the Phoenicians, and not until the days of Constantine was it abolished in the empire. Very seldom was a Roman citizen impaled, for this was a punishment usually given slaves and criminals of the lowest sort. Impalement was looked upon by both Jews and Romans as a symbol of humiliation and shame, reserved for those accursed.—Deut. 21:23; Gal. 3:13; Phil. 2:8.

      In the first century, if the Jews had the right to impale a person for religious reasons (a point on which there is some doubt), it is quite certain they could not do so for civil offenses; only a Roman official like Pontius Pilate had such authority. (John 18:31; 19:10) Nevertheless, the Jews, and especially their chief priests and rulers, bore the prime responsibility for Christ’s impalement.—Mark 15:1-15; Acts 2:36; 4:10; 5:30; 1 Cor. 2:8.

      The Romans sometimes tied the victim to the stake, in which case he might live for several days before his physical endurance was overcome by the torture of pain, thirst, hunger and exposure to the sun. As in the case of Jesus, nailing the hands (and likely the feet also) of the accused to a stake was customary among the Romans. (John 20:25, 27; Luke 24:39; Ps. 22:16, NW, 1957 ed., ftn.; Col. 2:14) Since the wrists have always been considered by anatomists as part of the hands, some medical men think the nails were driven between the small bones of the wrists to prevent the stripping out that could have occurred if driven through the palms.—See Arizona Medicine, March, 1965, p. 184.

      The record does not say whether the evildoers impaled alongside Jesus were nailed or simply tied to the stakes. If only tied, this might explain why, when Jesus was found dead, they were still alive and had to have their legs broken. (John 19:32, 33) Death by suffocation soon followed the breaking of their legs, since, as some think, this would have prevented the raising of the body to ease tension of chest muscles. Of course, this is not a conclusive point on why the evildoers outlived Jesus, for they had not experienced the mental and physical torture inflicted on Jesus. He had previously undergone an all-night ordeal in the hands of his enemies, in addition to being beaten by the Roman soldiers, perhaps to the point that he could not carry his own torture stake, as was the custom.—Mark 14:32–15:21; Luke 22:39–23:26.

      IMPALEMENT OF JESUS

      Most Bible translations say Christ was “crucified” rather than “impaled.” This is because of the common belief that the torture instrument upon which he was hung was a “cross” made of two pieces of wood instead of a single pale or stake. Tradition, not the Scriptures, also says that the condemned man carried only the crossbeam of the cross, called the patibulum or antenna, instead of both parts. In this way some try to avoid the predicament of having too much weight for one man to drag or carry a third of a mile (.5 kilometer) from the Castle of Antonia to Golgotha.

      Yet, what did the Bible writers themselves say about these matters? They used the Greek noun stau·rosʹ twenty-seven times and the verbs stau·roʹo forty-four times, sy·stau·roʹo (the prefix sy, meaning “with”) five times, and a·na·stau·roʹo (a·naʹ, meaning “again”) once. They also used the Greek word xyʹlon, meaning wood, five times to refer to the torture instrument upon which Jesus was nailed.

      Stau·rosʹ in both the classical and koi·neʹ Greek carries no thought of a “cross” made of two timbers. It means only an upright stake, pale, pile or pole, as might be used for a fence, stockade or palisade. Says Douglas’ New Bible Dictionary of 1962 under “Cross,” page 279: “The Gk. word for ‘cross’ (stauros, verb stauroō) means primarily an upright stake or beam, and secondarily a stake used as an instrument for punishment and execution.”

      The fact that Luke, Peter and Paul also used xyʹlon as a synonym for stau·rosʹ gives added evidence that Jesus was impaled on an upright stake without a crossbeam, for that is what xyʹlon in this special sense means. (Acts 5:30; 10:39; 13:29; Gal. 3:13; 1 Pet. 2:24) Xyʹlon also occurs in the Greek Septuagint at Ezra 6:11, where it speaks of a single beam or timber on which a lawbreaker was to be impaled.

      The New World Translation, therefore, faithfully conveys to the reader this basic idea of the Greek text by rendering stau·rosʹ as “torture stake,” and the verb stau·roʹo as “impale,” that is, to fasten on a stake or pole. In this way there is no confusion of stau·rosʹ with the traditional ecclesiastical crosses. (See TORTURE STAKE.) The matter of one man like Simon of Cyrene bearing a torture stake, as the Scriptures say, is perfectly reasonable, for if it was six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter and twelve feet (3.6 meters) long, it probably weighed little more than a hundred pounds (45 kilograms).—Mark 15:21.

      Note what W. E. Vine says on this subject: “STAUROS (====) denotes, primarily, an upright pale or stake. On such malefactors were nailed for execution. Both the noun and the verb stauroō, to fasten to a stake or pale, are originally to be distinguished from the ecclesiastical form of a two beamed cross.” Greek scholar Vine then mentions the Chaldean origin of the two-piece cross and how it was adopted from the pagans by Christendom in the third century C.E. as a symbol of Christ’s impalement.—A Comprehensive Dictionary of the Original Greek Words with their Precise Meanings for English Readers, 1948, Vol. I, pp. 256, 257.

      FIGURATIVE USAGE

      Not only do the Scriptures bear thorough witness concerning the physical impalement of the Lord Jesus Christ (1 Cor. 1:13, 23; 2:2; 2 Cor. 13:4; Rev. 11:8); they also speak of impalement in a figurative, metaphorical sense, as at Galatians 2:20. Christians have had their old personality put to death through Christ’s impalement. (Rom. 6:6) “Moreover, those who belong to Christ Jesus impaled the flesh together with its passions and desires,” Paul writes, adding that through Christ “the world has been impaled to me and I to the world.”—Gal. 5:24; 6:14.

      Apostates in effect “impale the Son of God afresh for themselves and expose him to public shame,” doing so by their Judaslike rebellion against God’s arrangement for salvation.—Heb. 6:4-6.

  • Impartiality
    Aid to Bible Understanding

    • IMPARTIALITY

      Freedom from bias or favoritism; fairness. The Hebrew and Greek words used in the Bible for “partial” or “partiality” have the sense of viewing and judging from the outward appearance; respect of persons. Impartiality, therefore, is a matter of not letting the person or that which appears materially, such as his position, wealth, power or other influence, or a bribe (or, on the other hand, sentimentality for a poor person) sway one’s judgment or actions in favor of the individual. Impartiality sees that all are treated in harmony with what is fair and just, according to what each deserves and needs.—Prov. 3:27.

      JEHOVAH IMPARTIAL

      Jehovah says that he “treats none with partiality nor accepts a bribe.” (Deut. 10:17; 2 Chron. 19:7) The apostle Peter said, when God sent him to declare the good news to the uncircumcised Gentile Cornelius: “For a certainty I perceive that God is not partial, but in every nation the man that fears him and works righteousness is acceptable to him.”—Acts 10:34, 35; Rom. 2:10, 11.

      Jehovah, the Creator and Supreme One, cannot be challenged on his decisions and actions. He can do as he pleases with what he has created, and does not owe anyone anything. (Rom. 9:20-24; 11:33-36; Job 40:2) He deals with individuals or groups, even nations, according to his purpose and his own appointed time. (Acts 17:26, 31) Nevertheless, God is impartial. He rewards each one, not according to his outward appearance or possessions, but according to what he is and what he does. (1 Sam. 16:7; Ps. 62:12; Prov. 24:12) His Son Jesus Christ follows the same impartial course.—Matt. 16:27.

      Not partial toward Israel

      Some persons have held that Jehovah dealt partially by using and favoring Israel as his people of ancient times. However, an honest examination of his dealings with Israel will reveal that such charge is erroneous. Jehovah chose and dealt with Israel, not because of their greatness and numbers, but because of his love and appreciation for the faith and loyalty of his friend Abraham, their forefather. (Jas. 2:23) Also, he was long-suffering toward them because he had placed his name upon them. (Deut. 7:7-11; Ezek. 36:22; Deut. 29:13; Ps. 105:8-10) While obedient, Israel was blessed above the nations not having the Law. When Israel was disobedient, God was patient and merciful, punishing them, nevertheless. And though their position was a favored one, they were under weightier responsibility before God because of bearing God’s name and because they were under the Law. For the Law carried curses against the one breaking it. It is written: “Cursed is the one who will not put the words of this law in force by doing them.” (Deut. 27:26) The Jews, by violating the Law, came under this curse, which was in addition to their condemnation as offspring of sinful Adam. (Rom. 5:12) Therefore, to redeem the Jews from this special disability, Christ had, not only to die, but to die on a torture stake, as the apostle Paul argues at Galatians 3:10-13.

      Thus, God exercised no partiality toward Israel. God was using Israel with the blessing of all nations in view. (Gal. 3:14) By this means God was actually working toward the benefit of people of all nations in his due time. In harmony with this, the apostle remarks: “Is he the God of the Jews only? Is he not also of people of the nations? Yes, of people of the nations also, if truly God is one, who will declare circumcised people righteous as a result of faith and uncircumcised people righteous by means of their faith.” (Rom. 3:29, 30) Furthermore, in the ancient Jewish commonwealth, men from other nations could come under God’s favor and blessing by worshiping Jehovah the God of Israel and keeping his law, as did the Gibeonites, the Nethinim (“given ones”) and many alien residents.—Josh. 9:3, 27; 1 Ki. 8:41-43; Ezra 8:20; Num. 9:14.

      Although patient and merciful, receiving Israel back when they repented, Jehovah finally cast them off as his name people. (Luke 13:35; Rom. 11:20-22) The apostle’s statement applies here: “He will render to each one according to his works: . . . wrath and anger, tribulation and distress, upon the soul of every man who works what is injurious, of the Jew first and also of the Greek; but glory and honor and peace for everyone who works what is good, for the Jew first and also for the Greek. For there is no partiality with God.”—Rom. 2:6-11.

      So, while a superficial, short-range view of God’s dealings might appear to reveal partiality, the deeper, long-range view brings to light marvelous impartiality and justice beyond anything man could have conceived. How finely he worked out matters so that all mankind would have opportunity to receive his favor and life!—Isa. 55:8-11; Rom. 11:33.

      Not partial toward David

      As Jehovah told Moses, he is a God who will by no means give exemption from punishment for wrongdoing. (Ex. 34:6, 7; Col. 3:25) Even in the case of his beloved servant David, with whom Jehovah had made a covenant for the kingdom, God made no exception. He punished David severely for his sins. After David’s sin against God in the affair of Bathsheba and her husband Uriah, Jehovah told him: “Here I am raising up against you calamity out of your own house; and I will take your wives under your own eyes and give them to your fellow man, and