desolated Jerusalem. Any spiritual lameness, hesitancy or indecision would be removed. Through the prophet Isaiah, God encouraged them: “At that time the lame one will climb up just as a stag does.” (Isa. 35:6) God’s nation had limped and suffered a fall into captivity, but “in that day,” said Jehovah, “I will gather her that was limping; . . . and I shall certainly make her that was limping a remnant, and her that was removed far off a mighty nation.”—Mic. 4:6, 7; Zeph. 3:19.

Further comforting his people, Jehovah promised, as their King, to protect them from aggressors. He described the helplessness of Zion’s enemies as a ship with its tacklings loosed, its mast wobbling and without sail. Then he said: “At that time even spoil [of the enemy] in abundance will have to be divided up; the lame ones themselves will actually take a big plunder.” Even those not usually able to have part in taking plunder would at that time be strong enough to share.—Isa. 33:23.

Consideration for spiritually lame ones

The Christian writer of the letter to the Hebrews pointed out that among them were many spiritually immature ones, who should be making better progress. (Heb. 5:12-14) Then, after speaking of discipline, he said: “Keep making straight paths for your feet, that what is lame may not be put out of joint, but rather that it may be healed.” (Heb. 12:13) Even stronger ones should carefully watch how they walk in their Christian course, so that the weaker, spiritually “lame” ones would not stumble or injure themselves. If those stronger in faith used their spiritual freedom to do certain things that were lawful, those weaker in faith might be stumbled by their actions.—Rom. 15:1.

The apostle Paul sets forth as an example of this principle the matter of eating and drinking. (Rom. 14:13-18, 21) In this passage he counsels, in part: “Make this your decision, not to put before a brother a stumbling block or a cause for tripping.” He says: “It is well not to eat flesh or to drink wine or do anything over which your brother stumbles.”—Compare 1 Corinthians 8:7-13.

On the other hand, the apostle shows, a Christian should strengthen his own spiritual ‘legs’ so that he will not limp or be stumbled by what occurs or by what someone else does. He should make himself strong so as to keep steadily in the Christian course. Paul says: “Let the one eating not look down on the one not eating, and let the one not eating not judge the one eating, for God has welcomed that one.” (Rom. 14:3) This principle was expressed by the psalmist: “Abundant peace belongs to those loving your law, and for them there is no stumbling block.” (Ps. 119:165) Those loving God’s law will not be caused to limp with spiritual lameness over any matter.

COMPLETE HEALING

Lameness has caused many tears. Just as Jesus Christ healed many lame and maimed persons when he was on earth, even restoring dried-up or amputated body parts (Mark 3:1, 5; Luke 22:50, 51), by means of “a new heaven” God’s Son will again perform these cures. This he will accomplish completely as God’s High Priest and King, wiping out every tear from the eyes of humankind.—Matt. 8:16, 17; Rev. 21:1, 4.

LAMECH

(Laʹmech) [perhaps, a strong youth].

1. The son of Methushael and a descendant of Cain. (Gen. 4:17, 18) His lifetime was overlapped by that of Adam. Lamech is the first polygamist of Bible record, having two wives at the same time, Adah and Zillah. (Gen. 4:19) By Adah he had sons named Jabal, “the founder of those who dwell in tents and have livestock,” and Jubal, “the founder of all those who handle the harp and the pipe.” (Gen. 4:20, 21) By Zillah, Lamech became the father of Tubal-cain, “the forger of every sort of tool of copper and iron,” and a daughter named Naamah.—Gen. 4:22.

The poem that Lamech composed for his wives (Gen. 4:23, 24) reflects the violent spirit of that day. Lamech’s poem ran:

“Hear my voice, you wives of Lamech;

Give ear to my saying:

A man I have killed for wounding me,

Yes, a young man for giving me a blow.

If seven times Cain is to be avenged,

Then Lamech seventy times and seven.”

Evidently Lamech was presenting a case of self-defense, pleading that his act was not one of deliberate murder, like that of Cain. Lamech claimed that, in defending himself, he had killed the man who struck and wounded him. Therefore, his poem stood as a plea for immunity against anyone desiring to get revenge against him for killing his attacker.

It appears that none of Cain’s descendants, which would include Lamech’s offspring, survived the Flood.

2. A descendant of Seth; son of Methuselah and father of Noah. (Gen. 5:25, 28, 29; 1 Chron. 1:1-4) This Lamech’s lifetime was likewise overlapped by that of Adam. Lamech had faith in God and, after calling his son’s name Noah (which means “rest; consolation”), he uttered the words: “This one will bring us comfort from our work and from the pain of our hands resulting from the ground which Jehovah has cursed.” (Gen. 5:29) These words found fulfillment when the curse on the ground was lifted during Noah’s lifetime. (Gen. 8:21) Lamech had other sons and daughters. He lived 777 years, dying about five years before the Flood. (Gen. 5:30, 31) His name is listed in the genealogy of Jesus Christ at Luke 3:36.

LAMEDH

[ך] (laʹmed).

The twelfth letter in the Hebrew alphabet, also used later, outside the Hebrew Scriptures, to denote the number thirty.

Laʹmedh corresponds generally to our English “l,” which is derived from it through the Greek lamʹbda. In the Hebrew, the psalmist uses this letter at the beginning of each of the eight verses at Psalm 119:89-96.

LAMENTATIONS, BOOK OF

In Biblical days lamentations or dirges were composed and chanted for deceased friends (2 Sam. 1:17-27), devastated nations (Amos 5:1, 2) and ruined cities (Ezek. 27:2, 32-36). The book of Lamentations furnishes an inspired example of such mournful, composition. It consists of five lyrical poems (in five chapters) lamenting the destruction of Jerusalem at Babylonian hands in 607 B.C.E.

The book acknowledges that Jehovah justly brought punishment upon Jerusalem and Judah due to the error of his people. (Lam. 1:5, 18) It also highlights God’s loving-kindness and mercy and shows that Jehovah is good to the one hoping in him.—Lam. 3:22, 25.

NAME

In the Hebrew this book is named by the opening word ʼEh·khahʹ, which means “How!” The Septuagint translators called the book Threʹnoi, meaning “Dirges; Laments.” In the Talmud it is identified by the term Qi·nohthʹ, meaning “Dirges; Elegies,” and it is called Lamentationes (Latin) by Jerome. The English name “Lamentations” comes from this latter title.

PLACE IN THE BIBLE CANON

In the Hebrew canon the book of Lamentations is usually counted in among the five M^eghil·lohthʹ (Rolls), consisting of The Song of Solomon, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes and Esther. However, in ancient copies of the Hebrew Scriptures the book of Lamentations is said to have followed the book of Jeremiah, as it does in English Bibles of today.

WRITER

In the Septuagint Version this book is introduced with the words: “And it occurred that, after Israel had been taken captive and Jerusalem had been desolated, Jeremiah sat down weeping and lamented with this lamentation over Jerusalem and said.” The Targums also identify Jeremiah as the writer, introducing it as follows: “Jeremiah the prophet and great priest said.” The introduction in the Vulgate is: “And it occurred that, after Israel had been led away into captivity and Jerusalem was deserted, Jeremiah the prophet sat weeping and wailed with this lamentation over Jerusalem; and sighing with a bitter spirit, and moaning woefully, he said.”

STYLE

The five chapters of the book of Lamentations consist of five poems, the first four of which are acrostics. The Hebrew alphabet has twenty-two distinct letters (consonants) and in each of the first four chapters of Lamentations successive verses begin with one of the twenty-two letters of the Hebrew alphabet. Chapters one, two and four each have twenty-two verses arranged alphabetically according to the Hebrew alphabet, verse one beginning with the first Hebrew letter ʼaʹleph, verse two commencing with the second letter, behth, and so forth, to the end of the alphabet. Chapter three has sixty-six verses and in it three successive verses begin with the same Hebrew letter before passing on to the next letter.

In chapters two, three and four there is a reversal of the letters ʽaʹyin and peʼ (there they are not in the same order as in Lamentations chapter one and Psalm 119). But this does not mean that the inspired writer of Lamentations made a mistake. It has been observed in a consideration of this matter: “Still less does the irregularity in question permit of being attributed to an oversight on the part of the composer . . . , for the irregularity is repeated in three poems. It is rather connected with another circumstance. For we find in other alphabetic poems also, especially the older ones, many deviations from the rule, which undeniably prove that the composers bound themselves rigorously by the order of the alphabet only so long as it fitted in to the course of thought without any artificiality.” (Biblical Commentary on the Old Testament by C. F. Keil and F. Delitzsch, The Prophecies of Jeremiah, Vol, II, p. 338) Among examples then cited are Psalm 34, where the waw verse is lacking, and Psalm 145, which omits the nun verse. The fact that strict adherence to the alphabetical arrangement of Hebrew letters is not present in these inspired writings should cause no concern. The use of acrostics undoubtedly served as a memory aid, but the message was of primary importance and thought content took precedence over any literary device.

Lamentations chapter five is not an acrostic poem, though it does contain twenty-two verses, the same number as the distinct letters of the Hebrew alphabet.

TIME OF COMPOSITION

The vividness of Lamentations shows that the book was written shortly after Jerusalem’s fall in 607 B.C.E., while the events of the Babylonian siege and burning of Jerusalem were still fresh in the mind of Jeremiah. There is general agreement that the book of Lamentations was penned soon after Jerusalem’s fall, and it is reasonable to conclude that the writing of it was completed in 607 B.C.E.

FULFILLMENT OF PROPHECY

Fulfilled in Jerusalem’s experience as vividly portrayed in the book of Lamentations were the words of Deuteronomy 28:63-65. The fulfillment of various other divine prophecies and warnings is also shown in this book. For example, compare Lamentations 1:2 with Jeremiah 30:14; Lamentations 2:17 with Leviticus 26:17; Lamentations 2:20 with Deuteronomy 28:53.

CONTENTS

In the first chapter, beginning with verse twelve, Jeremiah personifies Jerusalem, God’s covenant “woman” Zion, as speaking. (Isa. 62:1-6) She is now desolate, as though widowed and bereft of her children, a captive woman put into forced labor as a slave. In chapter two, Jeremiah himself speaks. In chapter three, Jeremiah pours out his feelings, transferring them to the figure of the nation as an “able-bodied man.” In chapter four, Jeremiah continues his lament. In the fifth chapter, the inhabitants of Jerusalem are pictured as speaking. The expressions of acknowledgment of sin, the hope and confidence in Jehovah, and the desire to turn to the right way, as portrayed throughout, were not the actual feelings of the majority of the people. However, there was a remnant like Jeremiah. So the view expressed in the book of Lamentations is a true evaluation of Jerusalem’s situation as God saw it.

The book of Lamentations is therefore a true and valuable record, inspired by God.

OUTLINE OF CONTENTS

I. Jerusalem is personified as a widow, sitting solitary in her grief (1:1-22)

A. Once a princess, now a slave; her “lovers” have forsaken her; her people have become captives of the adversary (1:1-7)

B. Jerusalem’s sinfulness has made her an abhorrent thing; her sanctuary has been violated by the nations, and hunger prevails (1:8-11)

C. She cries out that Jehovah has been alert to her transgressions; Jehovah himself is the one who has justly brought calamity upon her for rebelling against him (1:12-20)

D. She asks Him to repay her exulting enemies, dealing as severely with them as with her (1:21, 22)

II. Jehovah has executed judgment against Jerusalem (2:1-22)

A. He has thrown her “down from heaven to earth,” not remembering his “footstool”; he has become like an enemy (2:1-5)

B. Jehovah has caused festival and sabbath to be forgotten and has spurned his sanctuary; in his anger he has shown no respect for king and priest (2:6, 7)

C. God has brought ruin; there is mourning over Zion’s breakdown; her prophets have visioned worthless, misleading things; they have not uncovered her error (2:8-14)

D. Passersby wonder and enemies gloat over her desolate state (2:15-17)

E. Jeremiah calls on Jerusalem to pour out her heart to Jehovah (2:18, 19)

F. Jerusalem is pictured calling out to God for help because of the atrocities committed in His city and sanctuary (2:20-22)

III. As an “able-bodied man” the nation laments, expresses confidence in Jehovah’s mercy and repurchase of his people (3:1-66)

A. He describes great affliction suffered, the result of Jehovah’s fury (3:1-18)

B. Determines to show a waiting attitude, accept disciplinary yoke (3:19-30)

1. Knows that Jehovah will show mercy; not out of his heart has Jehovah afflicted (3:31-33)

2. As a sinful man, he cannot complain against God’s righteous acts (3:34-39)

C. Calls on nation to search out their own ways, return to Jehovah, who has up to this point blocked approach and prayer (3:40-45)

D. Reviews oppression (3:46-54)

E. Appeals to Jehovah with assurance that Jehovah will respond (3:55-58)

F. Expresses faith in Jehovah’s justice and repayment of vicious enemies (3:59-66)

IV. Distress attending the siege and captivity (4:1-22)

A. The temple’s glory has dimmed, Zion’s “sons” are of little value, and thirst and famine prevail (4:1-5)

B. Punishment for sin greater than that of Sodom; Nazirites’ “aspect has become darker than blackness,” and famine has caused women to eat their own children (4:6-10)

C. Jehovah’s anger has been poured out to burn up Zion, a thing unbelievable to land’s inhabitants (4:11, 12)

D. Prophets and priests responsible for bloodshed (4:13-16)

E. No salvation has come from looking to men (4:17)

F. Enemies pursue mercilessly; even Davidic king has been captured (4:18-20)

G. Let Edom exult now; but Zion’s error paid for, now Edom will get attention for her sins (4:21, 22)

V. Petition made to Jehovah for deliverance from desolation and captivity (5:1-22)

A. Jehovah is asked to remember his ‘orphaned’ people (5:1-5)

B. They have given their hand to Egypt and Assyria for bread, and have had to bear their forefathers’ errors (5:6, 7)

C. Mere servants rule over them; wives and virgins, princes, old and young men have been debased; they are sick at heart over their circumstances (5:8-18)

D. They beg that Jehovah bring them back to himself, though he has rejected them in indignation (5:19-22)

See the book “All Scripture Is Inspired of God and Beneficial,” pp. 130-132.

LAMP

A vessel used to produce artificial light. It has a wick for burning flammable liquids such as oil, the wick drawing up the fluid by capillary attraction to feed the flame. Wicks were made of flax (Isa. 42:3; 43:17), peeled rush or hemp. Olive oil was the fluid generally burned in ancient lamps (Ex. 27:20), though terebinth tree oil was also used.

Ordinarily, household lamps were made of earthenware, although bronze lamps have also been discovered in Palestine. The common Canaanite lamp was shaped like a saucer, having a rounded bottom and vertical rim. Its rim was slightly pinched on one side, where the wick rested. Sometimes the rim was pinched at the four corners, providing four places for wicks. Even seven-lipped lamps have been discovered.

In time, lamps were made in somewhat different shapes, some being closed except for two holes, one on top (near the center) for filling the vessel with oil and the other being a spout for holding the wick. Certain lamps had a loop handle at the end opposite the spout, sometimes in a horizontal, but more often in a vertical position. This type (called Graeco-Roman) frequently bore mythological human or animal forms. However, the Jews made lamps bearing such designs as vine leaves or scrolls. The five discreet virgins of Jesus’ illustration each had a lamp and oil In the receptacles. (Matt. 25:1-4) Those who came to arrest Jesus were also carrying lamps and torches.—John 18:3.

Early saucer lamps were generally a shade of brown. Varieties made in the first century C.E. were of various colors, including light brown, red-orange and gray. Also, there were those of Roman times that were covered with red glaze.

The lamps generally used in homes and other buildings might be placed in a niche in the wall, or on a shelf on a wall or pillar, or they might be suspended from the ceiling by means of a cord. Sometimes they were placed on clay, wooden or metal stands. Such lampstands permitted the light to radiate throughout the room. (2 Ki. 4:10; Matt. 5:15; Mark 4:21) Excavations at Megiddo have yielded bronze lamps that had separate tripods on which they could be placed. Certain Israelite pottery lamps had pedestal bases.

SANCTUARY USE

In Israel’s tabernacle, the lampstand was made of gold and differed in design from common household lampstands. Made according to Jehovah God’s instructions (Ex. 25:31), it was ornamented with alternating knobs and blossoms, and had three branches on each side of a central shaft, thus providing for seven holders in which small lamps were placed. Only fine beaten olive oil was used in these lamps. (Ex. 37:17-24; 27:20) Later, Solomon had ten golden lampstands and a number of silver lampstands made for temple use.—1 Ki. 7:48, 49; 1 Chron. 28:15; 2 Chron. 4:19, 20; 13:11.

CANDLES

There is no evidence that the candle as we know it today was used in Bible times. Whereas the flammable wax or fat of a modern candle is kept in the solid state until melted by the close proximity of the flame, lamp oil, a liquid, was used in Biblical days. Hence, frequent rendering by the Authorized Version of the Hebrew ner and the Greek word lyʹkhnos as “candle” is inappropriate, as at Job 29:3 and Luke 11:33, where modern translations (such as AT, NW, RS) fittingly use “lamp.”

JEHOVAH A LAMP AND SOURCE OF LIGHT

Jehovah is the paramount Source of light and guidance. David, after being delivered out of the hand of his enemies and of Saul, said: “You are my lamp, O Jehovah, and it is Jehovah that makes my darkness shine.” (2 Sam. 22:29) In the Psalms a slightly different expression is used: “You yourself will light my lamp, O Jehovah,” there picturing Jehovah as the one kindling the lamp that David carried to light his way.—Ps. 18:28.

JESUS CHRIST

In the heavenly New Jerusalem, as seen by the apostle John in vision, “night will not exist there,” but the city’s light is not that of the sun and moon. Jehovah God’s glory directly lights up the city, just as the cloud of light that the Hebrews called the Shekinah illuminated the Most Holy of the ancient tabernacle and temple. (Lev. 16:2; compare Numbers 9:15, 16.) And the Lamb, Jesus Christ, is its “lamp.” This “city” will shed its spiritual light down upon the nations, the inhabiters of the “new earth,” for their guidance.—Rev. 21:22-25.

KINGS OF THE LINE OF DAVID

Jehovah God established King David on the throne of Israel and David proved to be a wise guide and leader of the nation, under God’s direction. He was therefore called “the lamp of Israel.” (2 Sam. 21:17) In his kingdom covenant with David, Jehovah promised: “Your very throne will become one firmly established to time indefinite.” (2 Sam. 7:11-16) Accordingly, the dynasty or family line of rulers from David through his son Solomon was as a “lamp” to Israel.—1 Ki. 11:36; 15:4; 2 Ki. 8:19; 2 Chron. 21:7.

When King Zedekiah was dethroned and taken captive to Babylon, to die there, it appeared that the “lamp” was extinguished. But Jehovah had not