A. The temple’s glory has dimmed, Zion’s “sons” are of little value, and thirst and famine prevail (4:1-5)

B. Punishment for sin greater than that of Sodom; Nazirites’ “aspect has become darker than blackness,” and famine has caused women to eat their own children (4:6-10)

C. Jehovah’s anger has been poured out to burn up Zion, a thing unbelievable to land’s inhabitants (4:11, 12)

D. Prophets and priests responsible for bloodshed (4:13-16)

E. No salvation has come from looking to men (4:17)

F. Enemies pursue mercilessly; even Davidic king has been captured (4:18-20)

G. Let Edom exult now; but Zion’s error paid for, now Edom will get attention for her sins (4:21, 22)

V. Petition made to Jehovah for deliverance from desolation and captivity (5:1-22)

A. Jehovah is asked to remember his ‘orphaned’ people (5:1-5)

B. They have given their hand to Egypt and Assyria for bread, and have had to bear their forefathers’ errors (5:6, 7)

C. Mere servants rule over them; wives and virgins, princes, old and young men have been debased; they are sick at heart over their circumstances (5:8-18)

D. They beg that Jehovah bring them back to himself, though he has rejected them in indignation (5:19-22)

See the book “All Scripture Is Inspired of God and Beneficial,” pp. 130-132.

LAMP

A vessel used to produce artificial light. It has a wick for burning flammable liquids such as oil, the wick drawing up the fluid by capillary attraction to feed the flame. Wicks were made of flax (Isa. 42:3; 43:17), peeled rush or hemp. Olive oil was the fluid generally burned in ancient lamps (Ex. 27:20), though terebinth tree oil was also used.

Ordinarily, household lamps were made of earthenware, although bronze lamps have also been discovered in Palestine. The common Canaanite lamp was shaped like a saucer, having a rounded bottom and vertical rim. Its rim was slightly pinched on one side, where the wick rested. Sometimes the rim was pinched at the four corners, providing four places for wicks. Even seven-lipped lamps have been discovered.

In time, lamps were made in somewhat different shapes, some being closed except for two holes, one on top (near the center) for filling the vessel with oil and the other being a spout for holding the wick. Certain lamps had a loop handle at the end opposite the spout, sometimes in a horizontal, but more often in a vertical position. This type (called Graeco-Roman) frequently bore mythological human or animal forms. However, the Jews made lamps bearing such designs as vine leaves or scrolls. The five discreet virgins of Jesus’ illustration each had a lamp and oil In the receptacles. (Matt. 25:1-4) Those who came to arrest Jesus were also carrying lamps and torches.—John 18:3.

Early saucer lamps were generally a shade of brown. Varieties made in the first century C.E. were of various colors, including light brown, red-orange and gray. Also, there were those of Roman times that were covered with red glaze.

The lamps generally used in homes and other buildings might be placed in a niche in the wall, or on a shelf on a wall or pillar, or they might be suspended from the ceiling by means of a cord. Sometimes they were placed on clay, wooden or metal stands. Such lampstands permitted the light to radiate throughout the room. (2 Ki. 4:10; Matt. 5:15; Mark 4:21) Excavations at Megiddo have yielded bronze lamps that had separate tripods on which they could be placed. Certain Israelite pottery lamps had pedestal bases.

SANCTUARY USE

In Israel’s tabernacle, the lampstand was made of gold and differed in design from common household lampstands. Made according to Jehovah God’s instructions (Ex. 25:31), it was ornamented with alternating knobs and blossoms, and had three branches on each side of a central shaft, thus providing for seven holders in which small lamps were placed. Only fine beaten olive oil was used in these lamps. (Ex. 37:17-24; 27:20) Later, Solomon had ten golden lampstands and a number of silver lampstands made for temple use.—1 Ki. 7:48, 49; 1 Chron. 28:15; 2 Chron. 4:19, 20; 13:11.

CANDLES

There is no evidence that the candle as we know it today was used in Bible times. Whereas the flammable wax or fat of a modern candle is kept in the solid state until melted by the close proximity of the flame, lamp oil, a liquid, was used in Biblical days. Hence, frequent rendering by the Authorized Version of the Hebrew ner and the Greek word lyʹkhnos as “candle” is inappropriate, as at Job 29:3 and Luke 11:33, where modern translations (such as AT, NW, RS) fittingly use “lamp.”

JEHOVAH A LAMP AND SOURCE OF LIGHT

Jehovah is the paramount Source of light and guidance. David, after being delivered out of the hand of his enemies and of Saul, said: “You are my lamp, O Jehovah, and it is Jehovah that makes my darkness shine.” (2 Sam. 22:29) In the Psalms a slightly different expression is used: “You yourself will light my lamp, O Jehovah,” there picturing Jehovah as the one kindling the lamp that David carried to light his way.—Ps. 18:28.

JESUS CHRIST

In the heavenly New Jerusalem, as seen by the apostle John in vision, “night will not exist there,” but the city’s light is not that of the sun and moon. Jehovah God’s glory directly lights up the city, just as the cloud of light that the Hebrews called the Shekinah illuminated the Most Holy of the ancient tabernacle and temple. (Lev. 16:2; compare Numbers 9:15, 16.) And the Lamb, Jesus Christ, is its “lamp.” This “city” will shed its spiritual light down upon the nations, the inhabiters of the “new earth,” for their guidance.—Rev. 21:22-25.

KINGS OF THE LINE OF DAVID

Jehovah God established King David on the throne of Israel and David proved to be a wise guide and leader of the nation, under God’s direction. He was therefore called “the lamp of Israel.” (2 Sam. 21:17) In his kingdom covenant with David, Jehovah promised: “Your very throne will become one firmly established to time indefinite.” (2 Sam. 7:11-16) Accordingly, the dynasty or family line of rulers from David through his son Solomon was as a “lamp” to Israel.—1 Ki. 11:36; 15:4; 2 Ki. 8:19; 2 Chron. 21:7.

When King Zedekiah was dethroned and taken captive to Babylon, to die there, it appeared that the “lamp” was extinguished. But Jehovah had not abandoned his covenant. He merely held rulership on the throne in abeyance “until he comes who has the legal right.” (Ezek. 21:27) Jesus Christ, the Messiah, the “son of David,” was heir to that throne forever. Thus the “lamp” of David will never go out. Jesus is therefore an everlasting lamp as the one who possesses the Kingdom forever.—Matt. 1:1; Luke 1:32.

GOD’S WORD

Because “man must live, not on bread alone, but on every utterance coming forth through Jehovah’s mouth” (Matt. 4:4), His commandments are like a lamp, lighting the way of God’s servant in the darkness of this world. The psalmist declared: “Your word is a lamp to my foot, and a light to my roadway.” (Ps. 119:105) King Solomon said: “For the commandment is a lamp, and a light the law is, and the reproofs of discipline are the way of life.”—Prov. 6:23.

The apostle Peter had seen many prophecies concerning Jesus Christ fulfilled, and he had been personally present at Jesus’ transfiguration on the mountain. In view of all this, Peter could say: “Consequently we have the prophetic word made more sure; and you are doing well in paying attention to it as to a lamp shining in a dark place, until day dawns and a daystar rises, in your hearts.” (2 Pet. 1:19) The Christian was encouraged, therefore, to pay attention to prophecy in his heart. Peter pointed out that he should get what it says, not only into his mind, but also into his heart; then it would furnish guidance in the safe way “until day dawns and a daystar rises.”

JOHN THE BAPTIST

In the year 29 C.E., John the son of Zechariah, a priest, came, announcing: “Repent, for the kingdom of the heavens has drawn near.” (Matt. 3:1, 2; Luke 1:5, 13) Israel had turned away from obedience to the Law, and John was sent preaching repentance and pointing to the Lamb of God. He came “in order to bear witness about the light,” Jesus Christ. (John 1:6, 7) He succeeded in turning many of the sons of Israel back to Jehovah their God. (Luke 1:16) Consequently, Jesus said of John: “That man was a burning and shining lamp, and you for a short time were willing to rejoice greatly in his light. But I have the witness greater than that of John, for the very works that my Father assigned me to accomplish, the works themselves that I am doing, bear witness about me that the Father dispatched me.”—John 5:35, 36.

GOD’S SERVANTS

Jesus was a lamp and a light, and he said to those professing to be God’s servants: “You are the light of the world. A city cannot be hid when situated upon a mountain. People light a lamp and set it, not under the measuring basket, but upon the lampstand, and it shines upon all those in the house. Likewise let your light shine before men, that they may see your fine works and give glory to your Father who is in the heavens.” (Matt. 5:14-16) The servant of God should appreciate the reason for which he is given the light, and realize that it would be utterly foolish, and disastrous for him, to refuse to let it shine from him as from a lamp.

OTHER FIGURATIVE USES

That which one depends upon to light his way is symbolized by a lamp. With such a figure the proverb contrasts the righteous and the wicked, saying: “The very light of the righteous ones will rejoice; but the lamp of the wicked ones—it will be extinguished.” (Prov. 13:9) The light of the righteous continually becomes more brilliant, but however brilliantly the lamp of the wicked appears to shine and however prosperous his way may seem as a consequence, God will see to it that he ends up in darkness, where his foot will certainly stumble. Such an outcome is ahead of the person calling down evil on his father and mother.—Prov. 20:20.

One’s ‘lamp being extinguished’ also means that there is no future for him. Another proverb says: “There will prove to be no future for anyone bad; the very lamp of wicked people will be extinguished.”—Prov. 24:20.

Bildad, when implying that Job was hiding some secret wickedness, said of the wicked: “A light itself will certainly grow dark in his tent, and in it his own lamp will be extinguished.” Farther on in his argument Bildad adds: “He will have no posterity and no progeny among his people.” In the light of the fact that David’s son Solomon was said to be a lamp that God gave him, the putting out of one’s lamp may carry the thought that such a person would have no progeny to take over his inheritance.—Job 18:6, 19.

THE EYE

One’s eye is, figuratively, a “lamp.” Jesus said: “The lamp of the body is the eye. If, then, your eye is sincere [simple; all one way; in focus; generous], your whole body will be bright; but if your eye is bad, your whole body will be dark.” (Matt. 6:22, 23, NW, 1950 ed., ftn.) The eye is like a lamp, because with it the body can walk about without stumbling or bumping into something. Jesus, of course, had in mind the ‘eyes of the heart’ (Eph. 1:18), as his words in the context show.

A WIFE

Lamps were sometimes kept burning all day so that fires could be easily kindled. Also, some burned all night. Proverbs 31:18, in saying of the good wife: “Her lamp does not go out at night,” may be using a figurative expression meaning that she works industriously at night and even rises before dawn for further work.—Compare Proverbs 31:15.

ONE’S BREATH

According to Proverbs 20:27, “the breath of earthling man is the lamp of Jehovah, carefully searching all the innermost parts of the belly.” What a person “breathes out” or gives vent to, good or bad expressions, reveals or sheds light on his personality or inmost self.—Compare Acts 9:1.

[Picture on page 1023]

Two views of ancient lamp found at Tell en-Nasbeh

LAMPSTAND

[Heb., m^enoh·rahʹ; Gr., ly·khniʹa].

A stand or support for an oil-burning lamp or lamps. Though mentioning lampstands in homes and other buildings (2 Ki. 4:10; Dan. 5:5; Luke 8:16; 11:33), the Bible’s emphasis is primarily on the lampstands associated with true worship.

IN THE TABERNACLE

Jehovah directed Moses in vision to make for use in the tabernacle a lampstand ‘of pure gold, of hammered work.’ Together with its lamps and utensils it was to weigh one talent. (Ex. 25:31, 39, 40; 37:17, 24; Num. 8:4) This would equal about ninety-two pounds troy (c. 76 pounds avoirdupois; c. 34 kilograms), with a value, in modern terms, of over $38,600.00.

Design

This luminary for “the Holy Place,” the anterior compartment of the tabernacle (Heb. 9:2), was composed of a central stem, with six branches. These branches curved upward from each side of the main shaft. The central shaft or stem was decorated with four sculptured cups shaped like almond flowers, with knobs and flower blossoms alternating. The kind of flower represented in the flower blossoms is not certain; the Hebrew word used can mean any flower. The branches each had three cups, with knobs and flowers alternating. The description may indicate that the knobs on the central stem came at the point where the branches joined the stem. Lamps burning fine beaten olive oil were placed at the top of the main stem and on the end of each branch. Accessories consisted of snuffers, fire holders and oil vessels.—Ex. 25:31-38; 37:18-23; Lev. 24:2; Num. 4:9.

The actual construction of the lampstand was done under the oversight of Bezalel of the tribe of Judah and Oholiab of the tribe of Dan. (Ex. 31:1-11; 35:30-35) These men were doubtless good craftsmen, possibly learning the trade while slaves in Egypt. But Jehovah now put his spirit upon them so that the work could be perfectly done, exactly according to the pattern revealed and spoken to Moses.—Ex. 25:9, 40; 39:43; 40:16.

Use

Moses “placed the lampstand in the tent of meeting in front of the table, on the side of the tabernacle to the south.” Evidently it was parallel with the south side of the tent (left-hand side as one entered), opposite the table of showbread. The light shone “on the area in front of the lampstand,” thus illuminating the Holy Place, which contained also the golden altar of incense.—Ex. 40:22-26; Num. 8:2, 3.

At the time Moses completed setting up the tabernacle, on Nisan 1, 1512 B.C.E., he followed Jehovah’s instructions to light the lamps. (Ex. 40:1, 2, 4, 25) Later on, Aaron did so (Num. 8:3), and thereafter he (and future high priests) set the lampstand in order “from evening to morning before Jehovah constantly.” (Lev. 24:3, 4) When Aaron dressed the lamps “morning by morning,” and when he lit them “between the two evenings,” he also offered incense on the golden altar.—Ex. 30:1, 7, 8.

The lampstand, with the other tabernacle utensils, was transported during the wilderness journey by the Kohathite family of the tribe of Levi. First, however, the priests had to cover the articles, because, as Jehovah warned, non-priestly persons “must not come in to see the holy things for the least moment of time, and so they have to die.” The lampstand with its accessories was covered with a blue cloth and then put into a covering of sealskin and put onto a bar for carrying.—Num. 4:4, 9, 10, 15, 19, 20.

In the account relating King David’s bringing the ark of the covenant to Mount Zion, there is no mention of the lampstand. Only the Ark was brought from its location at the house of Abinadab. In fact, no more is said as to the whereabouts of the other holy utensils.—2 Sam. 6:3, 4, 11, 12, 17; 1 Sam. 1:9.

IN THE TEMPLES

David gave to Solomon the architectural plans for the temple, which plans he had received by inspiration. These included directions for lampstands of gold and lampstands of silver. (1 Chron. 28:11, 12, 15, 19) There were ten golden lampstands, and they were placed “five to the right and five to the left,” or five on the south side and five on the north side as one faced east, in the Holy Place of the Temple. (1 Ki. 7:48, 49; 2 Chron. 4:20) All ten of these were “of the same plan.” (2 Chron. 4:7) They were perhaps much larger than the one that had been in the tabernacle, commensurate with the increased dimensions of the temple and its other furnishings, such as the “molten sea.” (2 Chron. 3:3, 4; 1 Ki. 7:23-26) The silver lampstands were undoubtedly used in courtyards or rooms other than the Holy Place and the Most Holy, for the furnishings of these two rooms were of gold. As in the tabernacle, the lamps of the golden lampstands were lighted up “evening by evening,” constantly.—2 Chron. 13:11.

When the temple was destroyed by the Babylonians in 607 B.C.E., lampstands were among the gold and silver items taken from the house of Jehovah.—Jer. 52:19.

Temple rebuilt by Zerubbabel

The Scriptures provide no information about lampstands in the temple rebuilt by Zerubbabel. Josephus says that Antiochus (Epiphanes) “took away the golden candlesticks [lampstands].” (Antiquities of the Jews, Book XII, chap. V, par. 4) The apocryphal book of Maccabees mentions a “lampstand” being removed, necessitating the making of a new one.—1 Maccabees 1:21-23; 4:49, 50, JB.

Temple rebuilt by Herod

The magnificence of the temple rebuilt by Herod would give basis for assuming that this temple must also have contained lampstands equal in beauty and costliness to those in Solomon’s temple. We have no mention of them in the Scriptures, however. Evidence of such a lampstand is found in its mention by Josephus and its representation on a bas-relief in an interior vault of the triumphal arch of Titus in Rome. On this arch are depicted certain items taken from Jerusalem when it was destroyed by the Romans in 70 C.E. Josephus claimed to be an eyewitness of this triumphal procession of Emperor Vespasian and his son Titus. Josephus speaks of the procession carrying “the candlestick also, that was made of gold, though its construction were now changed from that which we made use of: for its middle shaft was fixed upon a basis, and the small branches were produced out of it to a great length, having the likeness of a trident in their position, and had every one a socket made of brass for a lamp at the tops of them. These lamps were in number seven.”—Wars of the Jews, translated by William Whiston, Book VII, chap. V, par. 5.

Whiston’s translation, in a footnote on Josephus’ description, says: “But what things are chiefly to be noted are these: (1.) That Josephus says, the candlestick here carried in this triumph was not thoroughly like that which was used in the temple, which appears in the number of little knobs and flowers in that on the triumphal arch, not well agreeing with Moses’ description, Exod. xxv. 31-36. (2.) The smallness of the branches in Josephus, compared with the thickness of those on that arch.”

Thus it may well be that the lampstand depicted on the arch of Titus is at best an artist’s conception, and may give only a rather vague idea of the actual lampstand’s appearance. The thickness of the branches, the heavy base, the decorations on the base, the decorations on the stem and branches, all may differ considerably from the real object.

FIGURATIVE USE

The prophet Zechariah saw in vision an unusual golden lampstand. As with the lampstand prepared for the tabernacle, it had seven lamps, but these lamps had seven pipes, which scholars understand in a distributive sense to mean a pipe to each lamp. Also, on top of the lampstand there was a bowl. Apparently a continuous supply of oil was provided for the lamps through the pipes leading to them. The oil evidently came from the two olive trees the prophet saw alongside the lampstand.—Zech. 4:2, 3, 12.

Jehovah God, through the glorified Jesus Christ, gave to the apostle John a vision in which he saw “seven golden lampstands, and in the midst of the lampstands someone like a son of man.” This one, whose description reveals him to be Jesus Christ, explained to John that the lampstands meant seven congregations. (Rev. 1:1, 12, 13, 20) These visionary lampstands were probably like the one that lighted the tabernacle so that the priests could perform their duties there. The use of such to represent congregations is in harmony with Jesus’ words to those who are dedicated servants of God: “You are the light of the world.” (Matt. 5:14) As the one “who walks in the midst of the seven golden lampstands,” he oversees all their activity as lightbearers.—Rev. 2:1.

In counseling the congregation at Ephesus, Christ warned that he would remove the lampstand from its place, unless they repented. This would doubtless mean that they would no longer be used to shed the light of truth in that area, but that their light would go out.—Rev. 2:1-5; compare Matthew 6:22, 23.

The final mention of lampstands in the Bible bears certain similarities to Zechariah’s vision. “Two witnesses” who were to prophesy in sackcloth were said to be symbolized by “the two olive trees and the two lampstands.”—Rev. 11:3, 4.

[Picture on page 1025]

The lampstand on the Arch of Titus in Rome

LANCE

See ARMS, ARMOR.

LANDOWNER

From very early times, property rights of landowners or landholders have been recognized. Abraham bargained with Ephron the Hittite for a burial place for his wife Sarah, finally buying a field for a stated sum, the transaction being legalized before the townspeople. (Gen. 23:1-20) During a famine in Egypt, Joseph bought land for Pharaoh from Egyptian landowners, in exchange for food. The priests were excepted, continuing to hold their land and to be fed with rations from Pharaoh. (Gen. 47:20-26) God’s faithful servant Job, living in the land of Uz, possessed inheritable property, doubtless including land, that he gave to his sons and daughters.—Job 1:4; 42:15.

IN ISRAEL

When Jehovah brought Israel into Canaan he exercised his right as Lord and Owner of the whole earth to dispossess the Canaanites, who were, in effect, “squatters” on the land. (Josh. 3:11; 1 Cor. 10:26) The period of God’s tolerating their holding the land had run out. God, although he had promised the land to Abraham’s seed, had told Abraham more than 450 years previously: “The error of the Amorites [a term sometimes used for all the Canaanite tribes] has not yet come to completion.” (Gen. 15:7, 8, 12-16) Therefore, as the Christian martyr Stephen told the Jews, God “did not give [Abraham] any inheritable possession in it, no, not a foot-breadth; but he promised to give it to him as a possession, and after him to his seed, while as yet he had no child.”—Acts 7:5.

Israel was not to fight wars of aggression, continuing to expand its territory by taking the property of surrounding nations. Jehovah warned Israel that they must respect the property rights of certain nations to whom he had assigned land. These nations were Edom, Moab and Ammon, related to the Israelites through Esau (Edom) and Lot (Moab and Ammon).—Deut. 2:4, 5, 9, 19.

Promised Land held in trust

Even the people Israel, although God gave them the land and they were able to enjoy it as landowners, were told by Jehovah that they were not actually owners of it, but only held it in trust. He said concerning the sale of a family land estate: “So the land should not be sold in perpetuity, because the land is mine. For you are alien residents and settlers from my standpoint.” (Lev. 25:23) God had ousted the Canaanites from the land for their disgusting practices. He would also take away all title from Israel and drive them out of the land if they followed such practices, which they later did, and were sent into exile. (Lev. 18:24-30; 25:18, 19; 26:27-33; Jer. 52:27) After seventy years of desolation of their land, from 607 to 537 B.C.E., God mercifully reestablished them, but this time under Gentile domination. Eventually, in 70 C.E., the Romans completely destroyed Jerusalem and scattered its people.

Within the nation, tribes were assigned sections of the land, or cities inside the boundaries of other tribes. Priests and Levites had cities with pasture grounds. (Josh. chaps. 15-21) In turn, within the tribes families were allotted inheritances. These divisions became smaller as families subdivided their own allotments due to increase in numbers. This resulted in thorough cultivation and use of the land. Inheritances were not allowed to circulate from one tribe to another. So as to prevent this, women who inherited land (because there were no living brothers) had to marry within the tribe to hold their inheritance.—Num. 36:1-12.

Brother-in-law marriage

If a man died without having a son, his brother (or, if no brothers, his nearest of kin) could marry his widow, to bring forth offspring from her. The man marrying the widow could also repurchase the dead man’s inheritance, if it had been sold. (Ruth 4:9, 10, 13-17) The woman’s firstborn would take the name, not of his actual father, but of the widow’s first husband, thus possessing the land inheritance and keeping the man’s name alive over his inheritance in Israel.—Deut. 25:5, 6.

The Jubilee year

God had said to Israel: “No one should come to be poor among you.” (Deut. 15:4, 5) The Jubilee year, as long as observed, prevented the nation from sinking into a situation where only two classes existed, the ultrarich and the very poor. On every fiftieth year (counted from the time of Israel’s entering Canaan) every man returned to his inheritance, any land he had sold being restored to him. Because of this law, the price of land decreased every year as the Jubilee approached. Actually, the buyer, in a sense, only leased the land, the price depending on the number of crops until the Jubilee year. (Lev. 25:13-16, 28) Even a buyer of another’s inheritance could not hold it until Jubilee if the one whose inheritance the land was or a repurchaser (relative) had the money and desired to repurchase the land for the original owner.—Lev. 25:24-27.