to have been dominated by Mycenaean or Dorian Greeks thereafter, and the ancient civilization disappeared from view toward the last centuries of the second millennium. While many scholars suggest that the Philistine emigration took place about the time of the destruction of Cretan cities, the Bible record shows that they entered the land of Canaan at a much earlier date.

During the first millennium B.C.E. Crete came finally under Greek domination. It is given little importance in the “Classical period,” being renowned at that time only for the exporting of expert archers as mercenaries. By the second century B.C.E. the island had become a center and hideout for pirates who preyed on Mediterranean shipping. Then, in 67 B.C.E. Pompey subdued Crete and it was made a Roman province together with Cyrene in North Africa.

PAUL’S ACTIVITY THERE

Cretan Jews and/or proselytes were among those in Jerusalem on Pentecost of 33 C.E. (Acts 2:5, 11) Perhaps as a result of this, Christianity was introduced into Crete.

The apostle Paul, on his way to Rome for trial, passed by Crete aboard a grain ship of Alexandria, about the fall of the year 58 C.E. The ship, with 276 passengers on board, “sailed under the shelter of Crete,” that is along the southern leeward side of the island where the ship was protected from the adverse northwesterly winds. From Salmone on the E coast of Crete, the ship worked its way slowly westward until reaching Fair Havens, a small bay providing anchorage at a point just before the southern coastline makes a sharp turn to the N. Here, contrary to Paul’s counsel, the decision was made to try to reach Phoenix, another harbor some forty miles (64.4 kilometers) farther up the coast. Rounding Cape Littinos (Matala), the ship “began coasting inshore” when a tempestuous E-NE wind, suddenly sweeping down from the mountainous heights, struck the ship, forcing it to heave to and run before the wind. From here the boat was driven past the island of Cauda, some thirty-five miles (56.3 kilometers) from Fair Havens.—Acts 27:6-16, 37, 38.

The evidence is that, following his two years of imprisonment in Rome, Paul visited Crete and engaged in Christian activity there during the final period of his ministry. On departing, he assigned Titus to remain in Crete to correct certain conditions among the congregations, making appointments of older men “in city after city.” (Titus 1:5) Later, when discussing congregational problems in a letter to Titus, Paul quoted the words of a Cretan prophet to the effect that “Cretans are always liars, injurious wild beasts, unemployed gluttons.” (Titus 1:10-12) These words are thought to proceed from Epimenides, a Cretan poet of the sixth century B.C.E. This estimate of the ancient Cretans was shared by the Greeks, among whom the name Cretan became synonymous with lying.

CRICKET

[hhar·golʹ].

A kind of leaping insect related to the grasshopper, though differing from the latter in that it has prominent feelers at the tip of its abdomen. Both the house cricket and the field cricket are to be found in Bible lands. Sole mention is made of this insect at Leviticus 11:22, where it is listed as being clean for food.

A number of Bible translations (AV; Yg) render the Hebrew term hhar·golʹ as “beetle,” the most typical species of which creep rather than jump. But it is generally agreed that the Hebrew word refers to a kind of leaping insect, as indicated by its being listed along with the locust. There is uncertainty, though, as to the exact leaping insect meant. Translators have variously rendered hhar·golʹ as “dropping locust” (Mo); “flying locust” (AT) and “cricket” (AS; NW; RS), and at times the Hebrew word has simply been transliterated.—Da; JB; Le.

CRIME AND PUNISHMENT

From the very earliest times man, made in the image of the God of justice (Ps. 37:28; Mal. 2:17), has possessed the attribute of justice. (Gen. 1:26; Isa. 58:2; Rom. 2:13-15) Jehovah’s first pronouncement of a sentence as the enforcement of justice was given to the first human pair and to the serpent, representing the Devil. The sanction for disobedience to God, which amounted to rebellion against the sovereignty of the Ruler of the universe, was death. (Gen. 2:17) Later on, knowing that men possessed the attribute of justice, Cain realized that they would want to kill him to avenge the murder of his brother Abel. But Jehovah did not appoint or authorize anyone to execute Cain, reserving the administration of retribution to himself, which he carried out by cutting off Cain’s line at the Flood. (Gen. 4:14, 15) About 900 years before the Flood, Enoch declared God’s coming execution against those who had committed ungodly deeds.—Gen. 5:21-24; Jude 14, 15.

AFTER THE FLOOD

After the Flood God issued further laws, among them being the first authorization to man to execute the penalty for murder. (Gen. 9:3-6) Later Jehovah stated concerning Abraham: “For I have become acquainted with him in order that he may command his sons and his household after him so that they shall keep Jehovah’s way to do righteousness and judgment.” (Gen. 18:19) This shows that that patriarchal society was under the laws of God, with which they were familiar. God’s view of adultery and his punishment therefor was stated to Abimelech when he told Abimelech that he was as good as dead for taking Sarah with intentions of making her his wife (although Abimelech did not know that she belonged to Abraham). (Gen. 20:2-7) Judah decreed the death penalty for Tamar for harlotry.—Gen. 38:24.

GOD’S LAW FOR ISRAEL

When Israel was organized as a nation God became their King, Legislator and Judge. (Isa. 33:22) He gave them the “Ten Words” or “Ten Commandments,” as they are often called, setting forth the principles upon which the body of about 600 other laws was based. He began the “Ten Words” with the statement: “I am Jehovah your God, who have brought you out of the land of Egypt.” (Ex. 20:2) This serves as the primary reason for obedience to the entire Law. Disobedience was not only a violation of the law of the Head of government but also an offense against the Head of religion, their God, and blasphemy of God was lese majesty, treason.

Under the Law the same principles applied as had governed patriarchal society. The Law, however, was more detailed and covered the whole scope of man’s activities. A. S. Diamond, in Primitive Law (1950, 2d ed., p. 90), says of the book of Deuteronomy that the rules written therein are “of a very high order of morality.” The entire Law, which is set forth in the Pentateuch, was so real and of such a high standard of morality that no man could attempt to follow the complete Law without finding that he was convicted by it as a sinner, imperfect. “The commandment is holy and righteous and good” and “the Law is spiritual,” says the apostle Paul. “It was added to make transgressions manifest.” (Rom. 7:12, 14; Gal. 3:19) It was the whole law of God for Israel, laying down the principles and official decisions of Jehovah, not just a mere gathering of a set of cases that might arise or that had already arisen.

The sanctions under the Law, therefore, would help to show sin to be “far more sinful.” (Rom. 7:13) The law of talion, like for like, set out a standard of exact justice. The Law served for the peace and tranquility of the nation, preserved the nation when Israel obeyed it, and protected the individual against the wrongdoer, compensating him when his property was stolen or destroyed.

The Ten Commandments as stated at Exodus, chapter 20, and Deuteronomy, chapter 5, do not expressly state the sanction for every violation. However, these penalties are definitely stated in other places. For a violation of the first seven commandments, the penalty was death. The punishment for stealing was restitution and compensation to the one whose property had been stolen; for false witness, retribution. The last commandment, against covetousness or wrong desire, carried with it no sanction enforceable by the judges. It transcended man-made laws in that it made every man his own spiritual policeman and got at the root or source of the violation of all the commandments. If wrong desire was indulged in, it would eventually manifest itself in a violation of one of the other nine commandments.

Major crimes under the law

Capital crimes. Under the Law the death penalty was prescribed for (1) blasphemy (Lev. 24:14, 16, 23); (2) worship of any god other than Jehovah, and idolatry in any form (Lev. 20:2; Deut. 13:6, 10, 13-15; 17:2-7; Num. 25:1-9); (3) witchcraft, spiritism (Ex. 22:18; Lev. 20:27); (4) false prophecy (Deut. 13:5; 18:20); (5) sabbath breaking (Num. 15:32-36; Ex. 31:14; 35:2); (6) murder (Num. 35:30, 31); (7) adultery (Lev. 20:10; Deut. 22:22); (8) woman marrying with false claim of being a virgin (Deut. 22:21); (9) intercourse with engaged girl (Deut. 22:23-27); (10) incest (Lev. 18:6-17, 29; 20:11, 12, 14); (11) sodomy (Lev. 18:22; 20:13); (12) bestiality (Lev. 18:23; 20:15, 16); (13) kidnaping (Ex. 21:16; Deut. 24:7); (14) striking or reviling a parent (Ex. 21:15, 17); (15) bearing false witness, in a case where the penalty for the one testified against would be death (Deut. 19:16-21); (16) coming near to the tabernacle if not authorized.—Num. 17:13; 18:7.

In many instances the penalty named is ‘cutting off,’ usually executed by stoning. Besides this being prescribed for willful sin and abusive, disrespectful speech against Jehovah (Num. 15:30, 31), many other things are named that bear this penalty. Some of them are: failure to be circumcised (Gen. 17:14; Ex. 4:24); willful neglect of Passover (Num. 9:13); neglect of Atonement Day (Lev. 23:29, 30); making or using the holy anointing oil for ordinary uses (Ex. 30:31-33, 38); eating blood (Lev. 17:10, 14); eating sacrifice in an unclean condition (Lev. 7:20, 21; 22:3, 4, 9); eating leavened bread during festival of unfermented cakes (Ex. 12:15, 19); offering a sacrifice elsewhere than at the tabernacle (Lev. 17:8, 9); eating of communion offering on third day from day of sacrifice (Lev. 19:7, 8); neglect of purification (Num. 19:13-20); touching holy things illegally (Num. 4:15, 18, 20); intercourse with menstruating woman (Lev. 20:18); eating fat of sacrifices.—Lev. 7:25; see CUTTING OFF.

Punishments imposed by the law

Punishments under the Law given by Jehovah through Moses served (1) to keep the land clean from defilement in God’s sight. Those who practiced detestable things were cleaned out from among the people. (2) The punishments deterred crime, maintained respect for the sanctity of life, for the law of the land and its Lawgiver, God, and for one’s fellowman and, when obeyed, preserved the nation from economic failure and from moral decay with its subsequent loathsome diseases and physical deterioration.

There were no barbarous punishments prescribed by the Law. No man could be punished for another’s wrongs. The principles were clearly set forth. The judges were granted latitude, considering each case on its own merits, examining circumstances, motives and the attitudes of those accused. Justice had to be strictly rendered. (Heb. 2:2) A willful murderer could not escape the death penalty by any payment of money. (Num. 35:31) If a man was an accidental manslayer he could flee to one of the cities of refuge provided, but, confined within the boundary of the city, he was forced to realize that life is sacred and that even accidental killing could not be taken lightly, but required some compensation. Yet, working productively in the city of refuge, he was not a financial burden on the community.—Num. 35:26-28.

The sanctions for offenses were designed to give relief and compensation to the victim of a thief or damager of property. If the thief could not pay the stipulated amount he could be sold as a slave, either to the victim or to another, thus reimbursing the victim and making the criminal work for his upkeep, so that the State would not have him on its hands, as is the case where imprisonment is practiced. These laws were just and served toward the rehabilitation of the criminal.—Ex. 22:1-6.

Under the Law the death sentence was carried out by stoning. (Lev. 20:2, 27) The sword was occasionally used, especially where a large number were to be executed. (Ex. 32:27; 1 Ki. 2:25, 31, 32, 34) If a city turned apostate, all in the city were to be devoted to destruction by the sword. (Deut. 13:15) At Exodus 19:13, death by the spear or lance, or possibly the arrow, is alluded to. (See Numbers 25:7, 8.) Beheading is mentioned, although it may be that execution was carried out by another means and the corpse beheaded. (2 Sam. 20:21, 22; 2 Ki. 10:6-8) For the more detestable crimes the Law prescribed burning and hanging. (Lev. 20:14; 21:9; Josh. 7:25; Num. 25:4, 5; Deut. 21:22, 23) These sentences were carried out only after a person had been first put to death, as the cited scriptures plainly state.

Captives of war were usually executed by the sword if they were persons devoted to destruction by God’s command. (1 Sam. 15:2, 3, 33) Others who surrendered were put to forced labor. (Deut. 20:10, 11) Older translations of the passage at 2 Samuel 12:31 make it appear that David tortured the inhabitants of Rabbah of Ammon, but modern translations make it clear that he merely put them to forced labor.—See NW; AT; Mo and others.

Precipitation, that is, throwing one off a cliff or high place, was not enjoined by law, but King Amaziah of Judah inflicted this punishment on ten thousand men of Seir. (2 Chron. 25:12) The people of Nazareth attempted to do this to Jesus.—Luke 4:29.

Strict justice was enforced by the law of talion or retaliation, like for like, where injuries were deliberately inflicted. (Deut. 19:21) There is at least one recorded instance of the execution of this penalty. (Judg. 1:6, 7) But the judges had to determine on the basis of the evidence whether the crime was deliberate or due to negligence or accident, and so forth. An exception to the law of retaliation was the law dealing with a situation in which a woman tried to help her husband in a fight by grabbing hold of the privates of the other man. In this case, instead of her reproductive organs being destroyed, her hand was to be amputated. (Deut. 25:11, 12) This law