to fresh developments. . . . its population was less strongly Hamitic and Shemitic than that of any preceding empire. . . . It was so far a new pattern in history, it was an expanded Aryan republic. . . . It was always changing. It never attained to any fixity. In a sense the [administrative] experiment failed. In a sense the experiment remains unfinished, and Europe and America today are still working out the riddles of world-wide statecraft first confronted by the Roman people.”—Chapter 33, “The Growth of the Roman Empire,” pp. 149-151.

The ram and the male goat

In the vision Daniel received two years later (Dan. 8:1), the powers represented by the two symbolic beasts involved are clearly named. The kingdom of Medo-Persia is here pictured as a male sheep (a ram) having two horns, the taller horn coming up afterward. History shows that the Medes first were the stronger and the Persians thereafter gained the ascendancy, though both peoples remained united in a dual power. A he-goat, moving very fast across the earth, symbolized the world power of Greece. (Dan. 8:3-8, 20, 21) The prophetic vision shows that the goat’s “great horn” located between its eyes, representing the first king, was broken “as soon as it became mighty,” four kingdoms resulting, though of inferior strength. (Dan. 8:5, 8, 21, 22) The amazingly quick conquest of the Medo-Persian Empire by Alexander has already been commented upon, as well as the division of his kingdom among four of his generals.

It is worthy of mention here that the same nation may be represented by different animal symbols in different prophecies. Thus, Babylon (as well as Assyria) is represented by lions at Jeremiah 50:17, while at Ezekiel 17:3-17 both Babylon and Egypt are pictured by great eagles. Ezekiel elsewhere likens Egypt’s Pharaoh to a “great sea monster” lying in the Nile canals. (Ezek. 29:3) Hence the fact that Medo-Persia and Greece are represented by certain symbolisms in Daniel chapter 8 does not eliminate the possibility of their being represented by other symbolisms in the earlier vision (chapter 7) nor in subsequent prophecies.

The seven-headed wild beast out of the sea

In the vision had by the apostle John and recorded at Revelation chapter 13 a seven-headed, ten-horned wild boast comes up out of the sea, leopard-like, yet with feet of a bear and the mouth of a lion. It is thus a composite form of several of the symbols appearing in Daniel’s vision of the four beasts. The dragon, identified at Revelation 12:9 as Satan the Devil, gives it its authority and power. (Rev. 13:1, 2) This beast’s seven heads (bearing ten horns) distinguish it from the one-headed beasts of Daniel’s vision. Seven (and ten) are commonly acknowledged as Biblical symbols of completeness. (See NUMBER, NUMERAL.) This is corroborated by the extent of this beast’s domain, for it exercises authority, not over one nation or a group of nations, but “over every tribe and people and tongue and nation.” (Rev. 13:7, 8; compare 16:13, 14.) Noting these factors, The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible comments: “The first of these beasts [of Revelation chapter 13] combines in itself the joint characteristics of the four beasts of Daniel’s vision . . . Accordingly, this first beast represents the combined forces of all political rule opposed to God in the world.”—Vol. 1, p. 369.

Two-horned beast out of the earth

Then John saw a beast with two horns like those of a harmless lamb yet speaking as a dragon, exercising the full authority of the first wild beast, just described. It directs making an image of the globally ruling seven-headed beast, putting all persons under compulsion to accept its “mark.”—Rev. 13:11-17.

It may be recalled that the two-horned ram of Daniel chapter 7 represented a dual power, Medo-Persia. Of course, that power had long disappeared in the apostle John’s day, and his vision was of things yet future. (Rev. 1:1) Other dual powers have existed since John’s day, but among these the historical association of Britain and the United States is particularly notable and of long duration.

The other notable characteristic of the two-horned beast, its speaking like a dragon, recalls the “mouth speaking grandiose things” on the outstanding horn of the fourth beast of Daniel 7 (vss. 8, 20-26); while its “misleading” earth’s inhabitants compares with the deception practiced by the ‘fierce king’ described at Daniel 8:23-25.—Rev. 13:11, 14.

The scarlet-colored wild beast

At Revelation 17 the apostle records his vision of a scarlet-colored beast with seven heads and ten horns, mounted by the symbolic woman “Babylon the Great.” This beast thus resembles or is in the image of the first beast of Revelation 13 but is distinct due to its scarlet color and the fact that no crowns are seen on its ten horns. Beholding the beast, John is told that five of the seven kings represented by the seven heads had already fallen, while one existed at that time and the seventh was yet to come. The scarlet-colored beast itself is an eighth king but springs from or is a product of the previous seven. The “ten kings” represented by the ten horns exist and exercise authority in association with the scarlet beast for a short time. Warring against the Lamb, Jesus Christ, and those with him, they go down in defeat.—Rev. 17:3-5, 9-14.

Some scholars would apply this vision to pagan Rome and the seven heads to seven emperors of Rome, followed by an eighth emperor. They disagree, however, as to which emperors should be included. The Bible itself does not treat of more than two Roman emperors by name, with a third (Nero) being mentioned under the title of “Caesar.” Other scholars understand the “heads” or “kings” to represent world powers, as in the book of Daniel. It is noteworthy that the Bible does name five world powers in the Hebrew Scriptures, namely, Egypt, Assyria, Babylon, Medo-Persia, and Greece, while the Greek Scriptures name a sixth, Rome, ruling in John’s day. While this would leave the seventh ‘king’ unnamed, the fact that it had not yet appeared when John recorded the Revelation would allow for such anonymity. At any rate, the eighth king, the symbolic scarlet beast, in some way unites in itself these seven heads while at the same time springing from them.

BEATING

The Mosaic law provided for punishment by beating. This was with a stick or a rod. The judges were to decide the number of strokes to be given according to the misdeed committed, considering also the motive, circumstances, and so forth. The position was prescribed: “The judge must also have him laid prostrate and given strokes before him by number to correspond with his wicked deed.” The punishment was limited to forty strokes. (Deut. 25:2, 3) The reason given for such limitation was that more than this would disgrace the person in the eyes of his fellow countrymen. This is one of the examples showing that the Law given through Moses allowed for no cruel or unusual punishment. The purpose of the punishment was corrective, not vindictive and vicious as were the punishments meted out by the nations. The one administering the beating would be punished if he exceeded the legal number of strokes. Therefore, the Jews restricted the strokes to thirty-nine, so as not to go beyond the limit by mistake and thereby violate the law.—2 Cor. 11:24.

A Hebrew slave owner was permitted to strike his slave man or slave girl with a stick if the slave was disobedient or rebellious. But if the slave died under the beating, the slave owner was to be punished. If the slave lived for a day or two afterward, however, this would be evidence tending to indicate that the slave owner did not have murder in his heart. He had the right to mete out disciplinary punishment, for the slave was “his money.” A man would be very unlikely to want to destroy completely his own valuable property, thereby suffering a loss. Also, if the slave died after the passage of a day or more, it would not be certain whether death was from the beating or from some other cause. So if the slave continued alive a day or two, the master would not be punished. (Ex. 21:20, 21) Jewish commentators say this law applied to foreign slaves, who only could be looked on as property, “his money.”

If a man charged his wife with deceptively claiming to be a virgin at the time of marriage and his charge was false, the older men of the city, as judges, were to discipline him and also impose a fine, because he brought a bad name upon a virgin of Israel. This discipline might have been the administering of a certain number of strokes.—Deut. 22:13-19.

The Scriptures repeatedly emphasize the value of strokes as a disciplinary measure. Proverbs 20:30 shows that discipline can go very deep, resulting in good to the individual. It reads: “Bruising wounds are what scours away the bad; and strokes, the innermost parts of the belly.” One being disciplined in this way should recognize that he has acted foolishly and should change. (Prov. 10:13; 19:29) A really wise person can be corrected by words and will avoid the need of strokes.

Since all mankind are brought forth “with error” and conceived “in sin” (Ps. 51:5), the Scriptures counsel that the parental rod of authority must be strictly exercised, sometimes in the form of the literal rod. (Prov. 22:15) Thereby the child may be saved from disfavor and death.—Prov. 23:13, 14.

It appears that the Jews did not continue to confine themselves to the rod but later used the scourge. (Heb. 11:36) This is a more severe punishment than beating with rods and, while it was a legalized punishment in Jesus’ day on earth, it was not based on the Law. (Matt. 10:17; 23:34) The Mishnah, which is supposed to be a development of the oral tradition, describes the procedure of scourging:

“They bind his two hands to a pillar on either side, and the minister of the synagogue lays hold on his garments—if they are torn they are torn, if they are utterly rent they are utterly rent—so that he bares his chest. A stone is set down behind him on which the minister of the synagogue stands with a strap of calf-hide in his hand, doubled and re-doubled, and two [other] straps that rise and fall [are fastened] thereto.

“The handpiece of the strap is one handbreadth long and one handbreadth wide; and its end must reach to his navel. He gives him one-third of the stripes in front and two-thirds behind; and he may not strike him when he is standing or when he is sitting, but only when he is bending low, for it is written, The judge shall cause him to lie down. And he that smites, smites with his one hand with all his might.

“. . . If he dies under his hand, the scourger is not culpable. But it he gave him one stripe too many and he died, he must escape into exile because of him. . . .

“How many stripes do they inflict on a man? Forty save one, for it is written, By number forty; [that is to say,] a number near to forty.”—Mishnah Makkoth, 3:12-14, 10.

An unusual form of scourging was adopted by Gideon toward the seven princes and older men of Succoth, who refused to give provision to his men when he was chasing after the kings of Midian. He apparently made scourges of the thorns and briers of the wilderness to thresh them. It is said that he put them “through an experience.”—Judg. 8:7, 14, 16.

Other nations used a more severe form of beating and they did not limit themselves to forty strokes. The Israelites in Egypt were beaten by their Egyptian overseers, no doubt very severely. (Ex. 5:14, 16; 2:11, 12) It is said that the Greeks permitted a criminal to be beaten to death.

Romans used rods for beating, the outer garments first being stripped off. (Acts 16:22, 23) They also used the scourge. The victim was stretched out, apparently having his hands tied to a post with thongs. (Acts 22:25, 29) To scourge a Roman citizen was illegal. The Porcian and Sempronian laws of 248 B.C.E. and 123 B.C.E., respectively, exempted Roman citizens from scourging.—Acts 22:25.

The most terrible instrument for scourging was known as the flagellum. It consisted of a handle into which several cords or leather thongs were fixed. These thongs were weighted with jagged pieces of bone or metal to make the blow more painful and effective.

The number of strokes administered was altogether up to the commander. Depending upon the viciousness of the executioner of the beating, the blows were applied to the back and sometimes even to the loins, the face or the bowels. It was not unusual for a victim to die under such scourging. The Romans used the scourge at times to ‘examine’ victims in order to obtain confessions or testimony.—Acts 22:24.

The punishment of scourging usually preceded impaling. After Pilate gave in to the Jews’ insistent cry for Jesus’ impalement, and he released Barabbas to them, we are told: “At that time, therefore, Pilate took Jesus and scourged him.” (John 19:1; Matt. 20:19; 27:26; Mark 15:15) Jesus told his disciples that for his name’s sake they would be beaten in the synagogues. (Mark 13:9) This prophecy was fulfilled numerous times. Some of the apostles were arrested and brought before the Jewish Sanhedrin and were flogged after they had refused to agree to stop their preaching work. (Acts 5:40) Saul, who afterward became the apostle Paul, was a fierce persecutor of Christians before his conversion, imprisoning them and flogging them in one synagogue after another. (Acts 22:19) Paul himself, after becoming a Christian, was given many beatings by the Jews.—2 Cor. 11:24; Acts 21:32.

Paul was flogged with rods in the city of Philippi. He turned this incident against his persecutors, using the opportunity to defend and establish the good news that he preached. He had been publicly beaten and thrown into prison, but when the magistrates found out that he was a Roman citizen, they were very fearful, for they not only had flogged a Roman citizen but had done so even before he had been condemned by trial. In this case too, Paul and Silas had been publicly displayed as malefactors. So when the magistrates ordered the jailer to release Paul and Silas, Paul replied: “They flogged us publicly uncondemned, men who are Romans, and threw us into prison; and are they now throwing us out secretly? No, indeed! but let them come themselves and bring us out.” The magistrates must personally acknowledge their error. “So the constables reported these sayings to the civil magistrates. These grew fearful when they heard that the men were Romans. Consequently they came and entreated them and, after bringing them out, they requested them to depart