under patriarchal law material evidence was acceptable in some cases. (Gen. 38:24-26) Circumstances were given consideration as evidence. If an engaged girl was attacked in the city, failure on her part to scream was deemed evidence of willful submission and guilt.—Deut. 22:23-27.

Secret adultery

A man suspecting his wife of secret adultery, for which he had no confession or eyewitness, could take her before the priest, where she would be judged by Jehovah, who saw and who knew all the facts. It was not a trial by ordeal. There was nothing in the procedure itself that would harm the woman or make manifest her innocence or guilt, but it was Jehovah who judged the woman and made known his verdict. If she was innocent, she would be unharmed and was to be made pregnant by her husband. If she was guilty, her reproductive organs would be affected so that she would be incapable of pregnancy. If there had been the required two witnesses, the matter would not have been taken to Jehovah in this manner, but she would have been adjudged guilty by the judges and stoned to death.—Num. 5:11-31.

Documents

Records or documents of various kinds were used. A husband was required to give his wife a certificate of divorce when putting her away. (Deut. 24:1; Jer. 3:8; compare Isaiah 50:1.) Genealogical records were available, as we see particularly in First Chronicles. Mention is made of deeds registering the sale of real estate. (Jer. 32:9-11) Historical annals were in existence from the beginning of human history. (Gen. 5:1; 6:9) Many letters were written, some of which may have been retained and may have figured in legal cases.—2 Sam. 11:14; 1 Ki. 21:8-14; 2 Ki. 10:1; Neh. 2:7.

JESUS’ TRIAL

The greatest travesty of justice ever committed was the trial and sentencing of Jesus Christ. Prior to his trial the chief priests and older men of the people took counsel together with a view to putting Jesus to death. So the judges were prejudiced and had their minds made up on the verdict before ever the trial took place. (Matt. 26:3, 4) They bribed Judas to betray Jesus to them. (Luke 22:2-6) Because of the wrongness of their actions they did not arrest him in the temple in the daytime, but waited until under cover of darkness, and then sent a crowd armed with clubs and swords to arrest him in an isolated place outside the city.—Luke 22:52, 53.

Jesus was then taken first to the house of Annas, the ex-high priest, who still wielded great authority, his son-in-law Caiaphas being the high priest at the time. (John 18:13) There Jesus was questioned and slapped in the face. (John 18:22) Next he was led bound to Caiaphas the high priest. False witnesses were hunted for by the chief priests and the whole Sanhedrin. Many came forward against Jesus but could not agree on their testimony, except two who twisted his words recorded at John 2:19. (Matt. 26:59-61; Mark 14:56-59) Finally Jesus was put under oath by the high priest and questioned as to whether he was the Christ the Son of God. When Jesus answered in the affirmative and alluded to the prophecy at Daniel 7:13, the high priest ripped his garments and called upon the court to find Jesus guilty of blasphemy. This verdict was rendered and he was sentenced to death. After this they spit in his face and hit him with their fists, taunting him, contrary to the Law.—Matt. 26:57-68; Luke 22:66-71; Acts 23:3; compare Deuteronomy 25:1, 2 and John 7:51.

After this illegal night trial the Sanhedrin met early in the morning to confirm their judgment and for a consultation. (Mark 15:1) Jesus was now led, again bound, to the governor’s palace, to Pilate, since they said: “It is not lawful for us to kill anyone.” (John 18:31) Here he was charged with forbidding paying of taxes to Caesar and saying that he himself was Christ a king. Blasphemy against the God of the Jews would not have been so serious a charge in the eyes of the Romans, but sedition would. Pilate, after making futile attempts to get Jesus to testify against himself, told the Jews that he found no crime in him. Discovering, however, that Jesus was a Galilean, Pilate was happy to send him to Herod, who had jurisdiction over Galilee. Herod questioned Jesus, hoping to see a sign performed by him, but Jesus refused. Herod then discredited Jesus, making fun of him, and sent him back to Pilate.—Luke 23:1-11.

Pilate now tried to release Jesus in harmony with a custom of that time, but the Jews refused, calling for the release of a seditionist and murderer instead. (John 18:38-40) Pilate therefore had Jesus scourged, and the soldiers again mistreated him. After this Pilate brought Jesus outside and tried to get his release, but the Jews insisted: “Impale him! Impale him!” Finally he issued the order to have Jesus impaled.—Matt. 27:15-26; Luke 23:13-25; John 19:1-16.

The following are some of the laws of God that were flagrantly violated by the Jews in the trial of Christ: bribery (Deut. 16:19; 27:25); conspiracy and the perversion of judgment and justice (Ex. 23:1, 2, 6, 7; Lev. 19:15, 35); bearing false witness, in which matter the judges connived (Ex. 20:16); letting a murderer (Barabbas) go, thereby bringing bloodguilt upon themselves and upon the land (Num. 35:31-34; Deut. 19:11-13); mob action, or ‘following a crowd to do evil’ (Ex. 23:2, 3); in crying out for Jesus to be impaled they were violating the law that prohibited following the statutes of other nations, and also that prescribed no torture, but provided that a criminal be stoned or put to death before being hung on a stake (Lev. 18:3-5; Deut. 21:22); they accepted as king one not of their own nation but a pagan (Caesar), and rejected the King whom God had chosen (Deut. 17:14, 15); and, finally, were guilty of murder.—Ex. 20:13.

LEGION

The name by which one of the two demon-possessed men, whom Christ Jesus encountered in the region E of the Sea of Galilee, identified himself. Evidently, though, “Legion” was not his actual name, as it referred to his being possessed by many demons. Possibly the chief one of these demons caused this man to say that his name was “Legion.” The fact that in the first century C.E. Roman legions usually consisted of 6,000 men may give some indication of the large number of demons involved. So fierce were the demon-possessed man and his companion that no one dared to pass the area where they had their dwelling among the tombs. Under demon influence the man who said his name was Legion walked about naked, and day and night he cried aloud and slashed himself with stones. All efforts to bind him, even with fetters and chains, were unsuccessful. Christ Jesus, however, freed this man and his companion from the power of the demons. Thereafter the expelled demons took possession of a herd of swine and caused these to rush over a precipice to their death in the Sea of Galilee.—Matt. 8:28-34; Mark 5:1-20; Luke 8:26-39; see GADARENES; SWINE.

For details about the Roman legions, see ARMY (Roman).

LEHABIM

(Le·haʹbim).

A name appearing at Genesis 10:13 and 1 Chronicles 1:11 among the descendants of Ham through Mizraim. Since the Hebrew name is a plural form, many scholars hold that a tribe taking its name from one of Mizraim’s sons is meant. (See, however, MIZRAIM.) The Lehabim are generally identified with the Libyans and at least seem to have constituted one of the tribes inhabiting Libya in ancient times. While identification is difficult, they were probably the same as the Lu·vimʹ mentioned elsewhere in the Hebrew text, as at 2 Chronicles 12:3, where the American Standard Version reads “Lubim” and other translations read “Libyans.”—Mo; NW; RS.

LEHI

(Leʹhi) [jaw(bone)].

The scene of one or, possibly, two Israelite victories over the Philistines. Its exact location is unknown today. But perhaps modern Khirbet es-Siyyaj, less than two miles (3 kilometers) E of Beth-shemesh, derives its name from the Greek word si·a·gonʹ (jawbone). It may therefore point to the ancient site.

At Lehi, Samson struck down a thousand Philistines with the moist jawbone of an ass. Subsequently he called the site Ramath-lehi (“the lofty place of the jaw[bone]”), probably to memorialize the victory Jehovah had given him there. (Judg. 15:9-19) Originally, though, Lehi may have gotten its name from the shape of its crags.

Later, according to the rendering of numerous translators, Shammah struck down many Philistines assembled at Lehi. (2 Sam. 23:11, 12; AT, JB, NW, RS) However, the Hebrew term la·hhay·yahʹ may also be rendered by such expressions as “into a troop” (AV, Le, Ro) instead of “to (at) Lehi.”

LEMUEL

(Lemʹu·el) [belonging to God].

An unidentified king of ancient times whose words are recorded in Proverbs chapter thirty-one. His identity has been the subject of considerable discussion, some commentators suggesting that Lemuel was another name for Solomon. Others identify Lemuel with Hezekiah. The words of King Lemuel constitute “the weighty message that his mother gave to him in correction.” (Prov. 31:1) However, the time and circumstances of the king’s reception of such information from his mother are unknown. This “weighty message” advises against involvement with a bad woman, warns of how intoxicating liquor can pervert judgment, highlights the need to judge righteously, and then describes a good wife.

LENTIL

An annual plant of the leguminous family that has long been cultivated by man and is still extensively grown in Egypt and Palestine, as well as in other lands. (2 Sam. 17:27, 28; 23:11) This small plant, measuring from six to eighteen inches (c. 15.2 to 45.7 centimeters) in height, thrives in light, dry soil. Its compound leaves, generally consisting of six pairs of oblong leaflets, terminate in tendrils. Slender branchlets bear two to four small pealike flowers each. The short pods that develop from the flowers resemble those of the pea, and usually contain two small lens-shaped seeds. The color of the seeds and that of the flowers differs with the variety of lentil plant. The seeds may be reddish brown, gray or black, and the flowers, white or pale blue. Rich in protein and carbohydrates, the seeds are, as in the past, commonly used for soups. (Gen. 25:34) In combination with barley, lentils have been used for making bread. (Compare Ezekiel 4:9.) The plant itself serves well as a fodder for livestock.

LEOPARD

One of the large cats, usually having a light-tan coat with black spots arranged in broken circles. (Jer. 13:23) Leopards commonly measure four feet (1.2 meters) in length, not including the tail. Although even in more recent years several leopards have been killed near Jerusalem, these creatures evidently were found in far greater numbers in ancient Palestine. (Song of Sol. 4:8) The cheetah or hunting leopard, ranked among the fastest of mammals, was also found in Palestine, and the Hebrew designation na·merʹ may have included this animal as well as the leopard. The cheetah differs from the true leopard in that its claws are only partially retractile and its spots are solid, not ringed.

In the Scriptures, allusion is made to the swiftness of the leopard (Hab. 1:8) and its manner of lying in wait near towns, ready to pounce upon passing domestic animals. (Jer. 5:6; Hos. 13:7) In sharp contrast with this, the leopard and the kid are depicted as lying down together in peace during Messiah’s rule.—Isa. 11:6.

At Daniel 7:6, the four-winged, four-headed leopard represents the Grecian World Power, which conquered Medo-Persia with the swiftness of a leopard. Also, the wild beast out of the sea, seen in vision by the apostle John, was basically like a leopard.—Rev. 13:1, 2; see BEASTS, SYMBOLIC.

The Hebrew word laʹyish, otherwise translated “lion” (Job 4:11; Prov. 30:30), is, in harmony with a Mishnaic Talmudic meaning, rendered “leopard” at Isaiah 30:6 (NW), the “lion” (la·viʼʹ) already being mentioned in the same text.

[Picture on page 1055]

The prophet Habakkuk alluded to the leopard’s swiftness

LEPROSY

A loathsome and dreadful disease manifesting itself in various ways and designated in the Bible by the Hebrew term tsa·raʹʽath and the Greek word leʹpra. A person afflicted with it is called a leper.

In the Scriptures “leprosy” is not restricted to the disease known by that name today, for it could affect not only humans but also clothing and houses. (Lev. 14:55) The Hebrew term tsa·raʹʽath may have included what is now technically known as Elephantiasis Graecorum (Greek for “elephant disease”), but this cannot be established definitely. The leprosy of today is otherwise called “Hansen’s disease,” so named because Dr. Gerhard A. Hansen discovered the germ that is generally viewed as causing this malady. However, though tsa·raʹʽath applies to more than the leprosy of today, there is no doubt that human leprosy now called “Hansen’s disease” was in evidence in the Middle East in Biblical times.

VARIETIES, WITH THEIR EFFECTS

Today leprosy or Hansen’s disease (which is only slightly communicable) manifests itself in three basic varieties. One, the nodular type, results in a thickening of one’s skin and the forming of lumps, first in the skin on the face and then on other parts of the body. It also produces degenerative effects in mucous membranes of the victim’s nose and throat. This is known as black leprosy. Another type is anesthetic leprosy, sometimes called white leprosy. It is not as severe as black leprosy and basically affects the peripheral nerves. It may manifest itself in skin that is painful to the touch, though it can also result in numbness. The third type of leprosy, a mixed kind, combines the symptoms of both forms just described.

As leprosy progresses toward its advanced stage, the swellings that initially develop discharge pus, the hair may fall from one’s head and eyebrows, nails may loosen, decay and fall off. Then the victim’s fingers, limbs, nose or eyes may be slowly eaten away. Finally, in the most serious cases, death ensues. That Biblical “leprosy” certainly included such a serious disease is apparent from Aaron’s reference to it as a malady wherein the flesh is “half eaten off.”—Num. 12:12.

This description helps one better to appreciate Biblical references to this dreaded malady and the dire consequences of Uzziah’s presumptuous act in improperly endeavoring to offer incense in Jehovah’s temple.—2 Ki. 15:5; 2 Chron. 26:16-23.