into a tablet and, while still wet, it was imprinted by means of a stylus forming wedge-shaped (cuneiform) characters. These tablets were often enclosed in clay envelopes. In the case of contracts, the text was sometimes repeated on the envelope. The envelopes were sealed and then baked in a kiln or dried in the sun to make them hard and durable.

Letter writing was often done by professional scribes. As in the Persian court, such scribes were usually on hand to take down official government correspondence. (Esther 8:9; Ezra 4:8) Scribes were also to be found in the marketplaces near city gates, where they could be engaged by the populace to write letters and to record business transactions.

Letters were sometimes delivered by messengers (2 Ki. 19:14), runners (2 Chron. 30:6), or couriers. (Esther 3:13; 8:14) Postal service itself seems to have been restricted to official correspondence down to Roman times. So average persons had to rely on traveling acquaintances or merchants to deliver their letters.

Anciently, letters of recommendation were also used. However, the apostle Paul did not need such letters to or from the Christians at Corinth to prove that he was a minister. He had aided them to become Christians and therefore could say: “You yourselves are our letter, inscribed on our hearts and known and being read by all mankind.”—2 Cor. 3:1-3.

In the first century C.E., letters from Paul, James, Peter, John, Jude and the governing body in Jerusalem contributed to the growth and the preservation of the unity and cleanness of the Christian congregation.—Acts 15:22-31; 16:4, 5; 2 Cor. 7:8, 9; 10:8-11.

LETUSHIM

(Le·tuʹshim) [perhaps, hammered, sharpened, or, oppressed].

A name appearing among the descendants of Abraham through Dedan, one of his sons by Keturah. (Gen. 25:3) This name has the plural Hebrew ending im, as do the names Asshurim and Leummim appearing in the same text. Because of this, many scholars believe that a tribe or people is meant. In view of their relationship to Dedan, this tribe likely located in the Arabian Peninsula, but precise identification is impossible.—See MIZRAIM.

LEUMMIM

(Le·umʹmim) [peoples, nations, or, perhaps, hordes].

A name appearing at Genesis 25:1-3 along with Asshurim and Letushim, all being descendants of Abraham and Keturah through their son Dedan. The use of the plural Hebrew ending (im) in the name Leummim may indicate that it represents a tribe or people. Specific identification of this Dedanite tribe is not possible. It has been suggested, however, that they inhabited some part of Arabia, likely in the vicinity generally assigned to Dedan.—See MIZRAIM.

LEVELING INSTRUMENT

A device used in making surfaces level or at right angles to a plumb line. The “leveling instrument” (Heb., mish·qeʹleth or mish·qoʹleth) was employed by carpenters, stonemasons and other craftsmen of ancient times to achieve horizontal accuracy when building walls and various structures, while the plummet was used to assure vertical accuracy. Egyptian masons seem to have employed a level shaped like the letter “A” with a short plumb line suspended from the apex. It indicated that the surface on which it was placed was level evidently when the hanging line coincided with a center mark on the crossbar. The Scriptures furnish no description of leveling instruments, however, and they refer to this device only in figurative ways.

A leveling instrument may be used to construct a building properly or to test its fitness for preservation. Jehovah foretold that he would apply to wayward Jerusalem “the measuring line applied to Samaria and also the leveling instrument applied to the house of Ahab.” God had measured and found Samaria and the house of King Ahab to be morally bad or crooked, resulting in their destruction. Likewise, God would judge Jerusalem and its rulers, exposing their wickedness and bringing about the destruction of that city. These events actually occurred in 607 B.C.E. (2 Ki. 21:10-13; 10:11) Through Isaiah the various wicked braggarts and rulers of the people in Jerusalem were apprized of their coming calamity and of Jehovah’s declaration: “I will make justice the measuring line and righteousness the leveling instrument.” The standards of true justice and genuine righteousness would reveal who were really God’s servants and who were not, resulting either in preservation or destruction.—Isa. 28:14-19.

LEVI

(Leʹvi) [adherence; joined].

1. Jacob’s third son by his wife Leah, born in Paddan-aram. (Gen. 35:23, 26) At his birth Leah said: “Now this time my husband will join himself to me, because I have borne him three sons.” The boy was therefore called Levi, the meaning of this name evidently being linked with Leah’s hope for a new bond of affection between her and Jacob. (Gen. 29:34) Levi became the father of Gershon (Gershom), Kohath and Merari, founders of the three principal divisions of the Levites.—Gen. 46:11; 1 Chron. 6:1, 16.

Levi, along with his brother Simeon, took drastic action against the defilers of their sister Dinah. (Gen. 34:25, 26, 31) This expression of violent anger was cursed by Jacob, who foretold that Levi’s descendants would be scattered in Israel, a prophecy that was fulfilled when the Levites were indeed scattered throughout forty-eight Levite cities in the territories of Israel’s various tribes in the land of Canaan. (Gen. 49:7; Josh. 21:41) Levi accompanied Jacob into Egypt and died there at 137 years of age.—Ex. 1:1, 2; 6:16; see LEVITES.

2. An ancestor of Jesus Christ who is referred to as “the son of Symeon” in the genealogy of Jesus recorded by Luke. He is listed in the line between David and Zerubbabel.—Luke 3:27-31.

3. The “son of Melchi,” who is the second person preceding Heli (Mary’s father) in Luke’s genealogy of Jesus.—Luke 3:23, 24.

4. A tax collector (Mark 2:14; Luke 5:27, 29) who became an apostle of Jesus Christ and was otherwise known as Matthew.—Matt. 9:9; 10:2-4; see MATTHEW.

LEVIATHAN

[Heb., liw·ya·thanʹ].

This Hebrew word occurs six times in the Bible. It is believed to come from a root word meaning “twist,” “coil” or “wind”; hence the name indicates something that is “wreathed” or “gathered into folds.” The word is transliterated in most Bible translations.

Since, with the exception of Job 3:8, the references mention water in connection with it, Leviathan appears to signify some form of aquatic creature, of great proportions and strength, although not necessarily of one specific kind. Psalm 104:25, 26 describes it as cavorting in the sea where ships travel, and for this reason many suggest that the term here applies to some type of whale. Though whales are rare in the Mediterranean, they are not unknown there and parts of two whale skeletons can be found in one museum at Beirut in Lebanon. An American Translation here says “crocodile” instead of Leviathan. Additionally, the word “sea [yam]” by itself is not determinative inasmuch as in Hebrew it can refer to a large inland body of water, such as the Sea of Galilee or Sea of Chinnereth (Num. 34:11; Josh. 12:3), or even to the river Nile (Isa. 19:5; Nah. 3:8) or the Euphrates.—Jer. 51:36.

The description of “Leviathan” at Job 41:1-34 aptly fits the crocodile, and the “sea” of verse 31 may refer to a river such as the Nile or another body of fresh water. It should be noted, however, that some crocodiles, as the Indian Estuarine crocodiles, are found along the seacoast and at times go out into the sea some distance from land.—See CROCODILE.

Psalm 74 describes God’s record of salvation for his people, and verses 13 and 14 refer symbolically to his deliverance of Israel from Egypt. Here the term “sea monsters [Heb., than·ni·nimʹ or tan·ninʹ]” is used as a parallel expression to “Leviathan,” and the crushing of the heads of Leviathan may well refer to the crushing defeat administered to Pharaoh and his army at the time of the Exodus. The Aramaic Targums here give “the strong ones of Pharaoh” in place of “the heads of Leviathan.” (Compare Ezekiel 29:3-5, where Pharaoh is likened to a “great sea monster” in the midst of the Nile canals; also Ezekiel 32:2.) Isaiah 27:1 apparently employs Leviathan as a symbol of an empire, an organization that is international in scope. The prophecy is one of restoration for Israel and therefore Jehovah’s ‘turning attention’ to Leviathan must include Babylon. However, verses 12 and 13 consider not only Babylon but Assyria and Egypt as well. So, Leviathan here evidently refers to an international organization or empire that is in opposition to Jehovah and his worshipers.

LEVITE CITIES

Jacob foretold that Levi would be scattered in Israel (Gen. 49:5-7) and this took place when the Hebrews occupied the Promised Land. The Levites were given no territorial allotment, Jehovah being their inheritance. (Num. 18:20; Deut. 18:1, 2) But God directed that the other tribes of Israel give them a total of forty-eight cities and surrounding pasture grounds. (Num. 35:1-8) Such cities were ultimately assigned to the Levites (Josh. 21:1-8), thirteen of them being priestly cities. (Josh. 21:19) Of the forty-eight, six cities were assigned as cities of refuge for unintentional manslayers. (Josh. 20:7-9; see CITIES OF REFUGE.) The Levites had the right to repurchase houses they sold within their cities at any time, or these were restored to them during the Jubilee year. But the pasturelands adjacent to their cities were never to be sold.—Lev. 25:32-34; see LEVITES.

LEVITES

Descendants of Levi, third son of Jacob by Leah. (Gen. 29:32-34) At times the term applies to the whole tribe, but usually it excludes the priestly family of Aaron (Josh. 14:3, 4; 21:1-3), and thus the expression “priests and Levites” is common. (1 Ki. 8:4; 1 Chron. 23:2; Ezra 1:5; John 1:19) Priestly duties were confined to the male members of Aaron’s family, with the Levites, the rest of the tribe, acting as their assistants. (Num. 3:3, 6-10) This arrangement began with the setting up of the tabernacle, as before this no particular family or tribe was assigned to offer the sacrifices.—Ex. 24:5.

TAKEN AS A RANSOM FOR FIRSTBORN

The Levites were chosen by Jehovah in place of all the firstborn of the other tribes. (Ex. 13:1, 2, 11-16; Num. 3:41) Counting from a month old upward, there were 22,000 Levite males who could be exchanged for the same number of firstborn males of the other tribes. The census taken in the wilderness of Sinai revealed that there were 22,273 firstborn sons in the other tribes. Therefore, God required that a ransom price of five shekels be given to Aaron and his sons for each of the 273 firstborn in excess of the Levites.—Num. 3:39, 43, 46-51.

DUTIES

The Levites were made up of three families from Levi’s sons Gershon (Gershom), Kohath and Merari. (Gen. 46:11; 1 Chron. 6:1) Each of these families was assigned a place near the tabernacle in the wilderness. The Kohathite family of Aaron camped in front of the tabernacle to the E. The other Kohathites camped on the S side, the Gershonites on the W and the Merarites on the N. (Num. 3:23, 29, 35, 38) Setting up, dismantling and carrying the tabernacle was the work of the Levites. When it was time to move, Aaron and his sons took down the curtain dividing the Holy from the Most Holy and covered the ark of the testimony, the altars and other sacred furniture and utensils. The Kohathites then carried these things. The Gershonites transported the tent cloths, coverings, screens and tent cords (evidently the cords of the tabernacle itself), and the Merarites took care of the panel frames, pillars, socket pedestals and tent pins and cords (cords of the courtyard surrounding the tabernacle).—Num. 1:50, 51; 3:25, 26, 30, 31, 36, 37; 4:4-33; 7:5-9.

The work of the Levites was highly organized under David, who appointed supervisors, officers, judges, gatekeepers and treasurers, as well as a vast number to assist the priests in the temple, the courtyards and the dining rooms in connection with the offerings, sacrifices, purification work, weighing, measuring, and various guard duties. Levite musicians were organized into twenty-four groups, similar to the priestly divisions, and served in rotation. Duties were determined by casting lots. In the case of the groups of gatekeepers, the particular gate assignment was chosen in the same way.—1 Chron. chaps. 23, 25, 26; 2 Chron. 35:3-5, 10.

In Moses’ day it was at thirty years of age that a Levite assumed his full duties, such as bearing the tabernacle and its articles when it was being moved. (Num. 4:46-49) Some duties could be performed from the age of twenty-five, but apparently not the laborious service, such as transporting the tabernacle. (Num. 8:24) In King David’s time the age was reduced to twenty years. David gave as the reason, that the tabernacle (now to be replaced by the temple) would no longer have to be carried about. Assignments of obligatory service terminated at the age of fifty years. (Num. 8:25, 26; 1 Chron. 23:24-26; see AGE.) The Levites needed to be well versed in the Law, often being called upon to read it in public and to teach it to the common people.—1 Chron. 15:27; 2 Chron. 5:12; 17:7-9; Neh. 8:7-9.

MAINTENANCE

Maintenance of the Levites was mainly by tithes from the other tribes, a tenth of everything produced from the ground and the cattle being given them. The Levites, in turn, passed on a tenth of this to the priests. (Num. 18:25-29; 2 Chron. 31:4-8; Neh. 10:38, 39) Also, though the Levites were exempt from military service, they, along with the priests, shared some of the spoils of battle. (Num. 1:45-49; 31:25-31; see TITHE.) The Levites received no territorial allotment in Canaan, Jehovah being their share. (Num. 18:20) However, other tribes of Israel gave them a total of forty-eight cities scattered throughout the Promised Land.—Num. 35:1-8.

PROVIDED SUPPORTERS OF TRUE WORSHIP

The Levites supplied some notable examples of enthusiasm for true worship. This was evident in the golden-calf incident; and again when Levites moved out of Jeroboam’s territory following the split in the kingdom. (Ex. 32:26; 2 Chron. 11:13, 14) They were also zealous in their support of Kings Jehoshaphat, Hezekiah and Josiah, Governors Zerubbabel and Nehemiah and the priest-scribe Ezra in their efforts to restore true worship in Israel. (2 Chron. 17:7-9; 29:12-17; 30:21, 22; 34:12, 13; also Ezra and Nehemiah) As a tribe, however, they did not support the Son of God in his work of restoration, but some individual Levites became Christians. (Acts 4:36, 37) Many of the Levite priests became obedient to the faith. (Acts 6:7) With the destruction of Jerusalem and its temple in 70 C.E., the family records of the Levites were lost or destroyed, bringing the Levitical system to an end. But, a “tribe of Levi” constitutes part of spiritual Israel.—Rev. 7:4, 7.

The name of the tribe is also the basis for the name of the Bible book “Leviticus.” This book deals extensively with the Levites and their duties.

LEVITICUS, BOOK OF

The third portion of the Pentateuch, containing laws from God on sacrifices, purity and other matters connected with Jehovah’s worship. The Levitical priesthood, carrying out its instructions, rendered sacred service in “a typical