“sea monsters [Heb., than·ni·nimʹ or tan·ninʹ]” is used as a parallel expression to “Leviathan,” and the crushing of the heads of Leviathan may well refer to the crushing defeat administered to Pharaoh and his army at the time of the Exodus. The Aramaic Targums here give “the strong ones of Pharaoh” in place of “the heads of Leviathan.” (Compare Ezekiel 29:3-5, where Pharaoh is likened to a “great sea monster” in the midst of the Nile canals; also Ezekiel 32:2.) Isaiah 27:1 apparently employs Leviathan as a symbol of an empire, an organization that is international in scope. The prophecy is one of restoration for Israel and therefore Jehovah’s ‘turning attention’ to Leviathan must include Babylon. However, verses 12 and 13 consider not only Babylon but Assyria and Egypt as well. So, Leviathan here evidently refers to an international organization or empire that is in opposition to Jehovah and his worshipers.

LEVITE CITIES

Jacob foretold that Levi would be scattered in Israel (Gen. 49:5-7) and this took place when the Hebrews occupied the Promised Land. The Levites were given no territorial allotment, Jehovah being their inheritance. (Num. 18:20; Deut. 18:1, 2) But God directed that the other tribes of Israel give them a total of forty-eight cities and surrounding pasture grounds. (Num. 35:1-8) Such cities were ultimately assigned to the Levites (Josh. 21:1-8), thirteen of them being priestly cities. (Josh. 21:19) Of the forty-eight, six cities were assigned as cities of refuge for unintentional manslayers. (Josh. 20:7-9; see CITIES OF REFUGE.) The Levites had the right to repurchase houses they sold within their cities at any time, or these were restored to them during the Jubilee year. But the pasturelands adjacent to their cities were never to be sold.—Lev. 25:32-34; see LEVITES.

LEVITES

Descendants of Levi, third son of Jacob by Leah. (Gen. 29:32-34) At times the term applies to the whole tribe, but usually it excludes the priestly family of Aaron (Josh. 14:3, 4; 21:1-3), and thus the expression “priests and Levites” is common. (1 Ki. 8:4; 1 Chron. 23:2; Ezra 1:5; John 1:19) Priestly duties were confined to the male members of Aaron’s family, with the Levites, the rest of the tribe, acting as their assistants. (Num. 3:3, 6-10) This arrangement began with the setting up of the tabernacle, as before this no particular family or tribe was assigned to offer the sacrifices.—Ex. 24:5.

TAKEN AS A RANSOM FOR FIRSTBORN

The Levites were chosen by Jehovah in place of all the firstborn of the other tribes. (Ex. 13:1, 2, 11-16; Num. 3:41) Counting from a month old upward, there were 22,000 Levite males who could be exchanged for the same number of firstborn males of the other tribes. The census taken in the wilderness of Sinai revealed that there were 22,273 firstborn sons in the other tribes. Therefore, God required that a ransom price of five shekels be given to Aaron and his sons for each of the 273 firstborn in excess of the Levites.—Num. 3:39, 43, 46-51.

DUTIES

The Levites were made up of three families from Levi’s sons Gershon (Gershom), Kohath and Merari. (Gen. 46:11; 1 Chron. 6:1) Each of these families was assigned a place near the tabernacle in the wilderness. The Kohathite family of Aaron camped in front of the tabernacle to the E. The other Kohathites camped on the S side, the Gershonites on the W and the Merarites on the N. (Num. 3:23, 29, 35, 38) Setting up, dismantling and carrying the tabernacle was the work of the Levites. When it was time to move, Aaron and his sons took down the curtain dividing the Holy from the Most Holy and covered the ark of the testimony, the altars and other sacred furniture and utensils. The Kohathites then carried these things. The Gershonites transported the tent cloths, coverings, screens and tent cords (evidently the cords of the tabernacle itself), and the Merarites took care of the panel frames, pillars, socket pedestals and tent pins and cords (cords of the courtyard surrounding the tabernacle).—Num. 1:50, 51; 3:25, 26, 30, 31, 36, 37; 4:4-33; 7:5-9.

The work of the Levites was highly organized under David, who appointed supervisors, officers, judges, gatekeepers and treasurers, as well as a vast number to assist the priests in the temple, the courtyards and the dining rooms in connection with the offerings, sacrifices, purification work, weighing, measuring, and various guard duties. Levite musicians were organized into twenty-four groups, similar to the priestly divisions, and served in rotation. Duties were determined by casting lots. In the case of the groups of gatekeepers, the particular gate assignment was chosen in the same way.—1 Chron. chaps. 23, 25, 26; 2 Chron. 35:3-5, 10.

In Moses’ day it was at thirty years of age that a Levite assumed his full duties, such as bearing the tabernacle and its articles when it was being moved. (Num. 4:46-49) Some duties could be performed from the age of twenty-five, but apparently not the laborious service, such as transporting the tabernacle. (Num. 8:24) In King David’s time the age was reduced to twenty years. David gave as the reason, that the tabernacle (now to be replaced by the temple) would no longer have to be carried about. Assignments of obligatory service terminated at the age of fifty years. (Num. 8:25, 26; 1 Chron. 23:24-26; see AGE.) The Levites needed to be well versed in the Law, often being called upon to read it in public and to teach it to the common people.—1 Chron. 15:27; 2 Chron. 5:12; 17:7-9; Neh. 8:7-9.

MAINTENANCE

Maintenance of the Levites was mainly by tithes from the other tribes, a tenth of everything produced from the ground and the cattle being given them. The Levites, in turn, passed on a tenth of this to the priests. (Num. 18:25-29; 2 Chron. 31:4-8; Neh. 10:38, 39) Also, though the Levites were exempt from military service, they, along with the priests, shared some of the spoils of battle. (Num. 1:45-49; 31:25-31; see TITHE.) The Levites received no territorial allotment in Canaan, Jehovah being their share. (Num. 18:20) However, other tribes of Israel gave them a total of forty-eight cities scattered throughout the Promised Land.—Num. 35:1-8.

PROVIDED SUPPORTERS OF TRUE WORSHIP

The Levites supplied some notable examples of enthusiasm for true worship. This was evident in the golden-calf incident; and again when Levites moved out of Jeroboam’s territory following the split in the kingdom. (Ex. 32:26; 2 Chron. 11:13, 14) They were also zealous in their support of Kings Jehoshaphat, Hezekiah and Josiah, Governors Zerubbabel and Nehemiah and the priest-scribe Ezra in their efforts to restore true worship in Israel. (2 Chron. 17:7-9; 29:12-17; 30:21, 22; 34:12, 13; also Ezra and Nehemiah) As a tribe, however, they did not support the Son of God in his work of restoration, but some individual Levites became Christians. (Acts 4:36, 37) Many of the Levite priests became obedient to the faith. (Acts 6:7) With the destruction of Jerusalem and its temple in 70 C.E., the family records of the Levites were lost or destroyed, bringing the Levitical system to an end. But, a “tribe of Levi” constitutes part of spiritual Israel.—Rev. 7:4, 7.

The name of the tribe is also the basis for the name of the Bible book “Leviticus.” This book deals extensively with the Levites and their duties.

LEVITICUS, BOOK OF

The third portion of the Pentateuch, containing laws from God on sacrifices, purity and other matters connected with Jehovah’s worship. The Levitical priesthood, carrying out its instructions, rendered sacred service in “a typical representation and a shadow of the heavenly things.”—Heb. 8:3-5; 10:1.

PERIOD COVERED

Not a very long period is covered by the book of Leviticus, most of it being devoted to listing Jehovah’s ordinances rather than recounting various happenings over an extended period of time. Thus not more than a month can be covered by the events given in the book. The tabernacle’s erection on the first day of the first month in the second year of Israel’s departure from Egypt is mentioned in the final chapter of Exodus, the book preceding Leviticus. (Ex. 40:17) Then, the book of Numbers (immediately following the Leviticus account) in its first verses (1:1-3) begins with God’s command to take a census, stated to Moses “on the first day of the second month in the second year of their coming out of the land of Egypt.”

WHEN AND WHERE WRITTEN

The logical time for the writing of the book would therefore be 1512 B.C.E., at Sinai in the wilderness.

Testifying that Leviticus was indeed written in the wilderness are its references that reflect camp life. (Lev. 4:21; 10:4, 5; 14:8; 17:1-5) Hence it was not written by someone later when such unusual circumstances no longer prevailed, as claimed by some.

WRITER

All the foregoing evidence likewise helps to identify the writer as Moses. He received the information from Jehovah (Lev. 26:46), and the book’s closing words are: “These are the commandments that Jehovah gave Moses as commands to the sons of Israel in Mount Sinai.” (Lev. 27:34) Besides, Leviticus is a part of the Pentateuch, the writer of which is generally acknowledged to be Moses. Not only does the opening “and . . . ” of Leviticus indicate its connection with Exodus, and therefore with the rest of the Pentateuch, but the way in which Jesus Christ and the writers of the Christian Scriptures refer to it shows that they knew it to be the writing of Moses and an unquestionable part of the Pentateuch. For example, see Christ’s reference to Leviticus 14:1-32 (Matt. 8:2-4), Luke’s reference to Leviticus 12:2-4, 8 (Luke 2:22-24), and Paul’s paraphrasing of Leviticus 18:5 (Rom. 10:5).

OUTLINE OF CONTENTS

I. Regulations concerning sacrifices (1:1–7:38)

A. Procedure followed for burnt offerings (1:1-17)

B. Preparation and presentation of grain offerings (2:1-16)

C. Manner of handling communion sacrifices, including prohibition on eating fat and blood (3:1-17)

D. Procedure involving sin offerings and guilt offerings; various sins requiring sacrifice (4:1–6:7)

E. Instructions for priests on handling burnt offering, grain offering, offering to be presented on day of anointing, sin offering and guilt offering (6:8–7:7)

F. Portions of various offerings received by priest; regulations about eating communion sacrifices (7:8-38)

II. Installation procedure for Aaronic priesthood (8:1-36)

III. Aaronic priesthood begins functioning (9:1–10:20)

A. Sacrifices presented on altar; burnt offering and fatty pieces consumed by fire from Jehovah (9:1-24)

B. Nadab and Abihu consumed by fire from Jehovah for having offered illegitimate fire; Aaron and other sons heed command not to mourn or leave entrance of tent of meeting (10:1-7)

C. Priests commanded not to drink wine or intoxicating liquor when officiating (10:8-11)

D. Moses advises Aaron, Eleazar and Ithamar about priestly portion of sacrifices and becomes indignant because Eleazar and Ithamar had not eaten goat of sin offering (10:12-20)

IV. Animals clean or unclean for food; uncleanness from dead bodies (11:1-47)

V. Purification of women upon giving birth (12:1-8)

VI. Leprosy: symptoms and procedure in ease of humans, garments, other articles and houses; offerings for cleansed leper and purified house (13:1–14:57)

VII. Uncleanness from male and female sexual discharges (15:1-33)

VIII. Procedure followed on annual atonement day (16:1-34)

IX. Regulations about eating meat, offerings; prohibition on eating blood; law concerning eating animals already dead (17:1-16)

X. Judicial decisions concerning incest, sexual perversions and numerous other detestable practices, including idolatry, spiritism, lying, slander and the like (18:1–20:27)

XI. Priests to keep themselves holy; regulations about their marrying and concerning defects that would render them unfit for officiating at sanctuary; priestly uncleannesses; regulations about eating holy things and regarding sacrifices (21:1–22:33)

XII. Israel’s seasonal festivals and manner of observance (23:1-44)

XIII. Regulations regarding lampstand, showbread, abuse of God’s name, murder, compensation and retributive justice, sabbath year, Jubilee year, repurchasing, conduct toward poor Israelites and slavery (24:1–25:55)

XIV. Blessings for obedience; maledictions for disobedience (26:1-46)

XV. Regulations about vow evaluations, firstborn of animals, devoted things and tenths (27:1-34)

VALUE OF THE BOOK

God promised Israel that if they obeyed his voice they would become to him “a kingdom of priests and a holy nation.” (Ex. 19:6) The book of Leviticus contains a record of God’s installing a priesthood for his nation and giving them the statutes that would enable them to maintain holiness in his eyes. Even though Israel was only God’s typical “holy nation,” whose priests were “rendering sacred service in a typical representation and a shadow of the heavenly things” (Heb. 8:4, 5), God’s law, if obeyed, would have kept them clean and in line for filling the membership of his spiritual “royal priesthood, a holy nation.” (1 Pet. 2:9) But the disobedience of the majority deprived Israel of filling exclusively the place of membership in the kingdom of God, as Jesus told the Jews. (Matt. 21:43) Nevertheless, the laws set down in the book of Leviticus were of inestimable value to those heeding them.

Through the sanitary and dietary laws, as well as the regulations on sexual morality, they were provided with safeguards against disease and depravity. (Lev. chaps. 11-15, 18) Especially, however, did these laws benefit them spiritually, because they enabled them to get acquainted with Jehovah’s holy and righteous ways and they helped them to conform to His ways. (Lev. 11:44) Furthermore, the regulations set out in this portion of the Bible, as part of the Law, served as a tutor leading believing ones to Jesus Christ, God’s great High Priest and the one foreshadowed by the countless sacrifices offered in accord with the Law.—Gal. 3:19, 24; Heb. 7:26-28; 9:11-14; 10:1-10.

The book of Leviticus continues to be of great value to all today who desire to serve Jehovah acceptably. A study of the fulfillment of its various features in connection with Jesus Christ, the ransom sacrifice and the Christian congregation is indeed faith-strengthening. While it is true that Christians are not under the Law covenant (Heb. 7:11, 12, 19; 8:13; 10:1), the regulations set out in the book of Leviticus give them insight into God’s viewpoint on matters. The book is, therefore, not a mere recounting of dry, inapplicable details, but a live source of information. By getting a knowledge of how God views various matters, some of which are not specifically covered in the Christian Greek Scriptures, the Christian can be aided to avoid what displeases God and to do what pleases him.

LIBERTY

See FREEDOM.

LIBNAH

(Lib’nah) [whiteness].

1. An Israelite wilderness encampment. Its location is unknown.—Num. 33:20, 21.

2. A royal Canaanite city taken by Joshua before the conquest of Lachish. (Josh. 10:29-32, 39; 12:15) Libnah was one of the cities in the territory of Judah given to the “sons of Aaron.” (Josh. 15:21, 42; 21:13; 1 Chron. 6:57) Centuries later King Josiah’s father-in-law lived there.—2 Ki. 23:31; 24:18; Jer. 52:1.

At the time of the Edomite revolt in the tenth century B.C.E., Libnah also rebelled against Judean King Jehoram. (2 Ki. 8:22; 2 Chron. 21:10) In 732 B.C.E. Assyrian King Sennacherib’s army moved from Lachish to Libnah. He had sent a military detachment from Lachish to threaten Jerusalem. While at Libnah, the Assyrians received reports that Tirhakah the king of Ethiopia intended to fight them. Therefore, Sennacherib, to encourage Jerusalem’s surrender, sent messengers a second time with intimidating letters to Hezekiah the king of Judah. Subsequently Jehovah’s angel slew 185,000 of the Assyrian host, apparently still encamped near Libnah.—2 Ki. 19:8-35; Isa. 37:8-36.

Tell es-Safi, located less than six miles (10 kilometers) W of the suggested site of Azekah, is generally favored as a possible identification of ancient Libnah. This crescent-shaped mound, with its cliffs of white limestone, is a natural fortress. However, some scholars prefer linking Libnah with Tell Bornot, about five and a half miles (9 kilometers) SE of Tell es-Safi.

LIBNI

(Libʹni) [white].

1. A grandson of Levi and the son of Gershon (Gershom). (Ex. 6:17; 1 Chron. 6:17) He was the founder of a Levitical family (Num. 3:18, 21; 1 Chron. 6:19, 20) and was evidently also called Ladan.—1 Chron. 23:6, 7; 26:21.

2. A Levite who descended from Merari through Mahli.—1 Chron. 6:29.

LIBNITES

A family of Levites who descended from Gershon (Gershom) through his son Libni.—Num. 3:21; 26:58.

LIBYA

(Libʹy·a), Libyans (Libʹy·ans).

Ancient Libya occupied an area of northern Africa W of Egypt. Its inhabitants are generally thought to have been designated by the Hebrew term Lu·vimʹ. (2 Chron. 12:3; “Libyans,” LXX, NW, RS) If Lu·vimʹ is a variant of L^eha·vimʹ (Lehabim), this may indicate that at least some of the Libyans descended from Ham through Mizraim. (Gen. 10:13) The traditional Jewish view found in the writings of Josephus (Antiquities of the Jews, Book I, chap. II, par. 2) makes the Libyans descendants of Ham through Put. (Gen. 10:6) Also, the Greek Septuagint and the Latin Vulgate read “Libya” or “Libyans” four times where the Hebrew text says “Put.” (Jer. 46:9; Ezek. 27:10; 30:5; 38:5) It is possible, of course, that descendants of both Put and Mizraim settled in the geographical region of northern Africa that came to be called Libya. This would mean that the designation “Libyans” is more comprehensive than the Hebrew term Lu·vimʹ.

Since the Septuagint Version employs “Libyans” instead of “Chub” (Kuv) at Ezekiel 30:5, some scholars link Kuv with Libya and regard the term as a spelling error for Luv.

An ancient Egyptian wall painting depicts a number of light-skinned men believed to be Libyans. The Berbers, a people thought to have descended from the Libyans, are basically “white” and generally have dark hair and eyes. Whether the Libyans were originally a dark-complexioned race cannot now be determined. Intermarriage with fair-skinned peoples could, of course, have altered their features.

Egypt’s King Shishak, regarded as the founder of the “Libyan dynasty,” captured numerous cities when be invaded Judah in the fifth year of King Rehoboam (993/992 B.C.E.). His powerful force of chariots and horsemen included Libyans. Although Jerusalem itself was spared, Shishak stripped the city of its treasures. (1 Ki. 14:25, 26; 2 Chron. 12:2-9) About twenty-six years later (967/966 B.C.E.) the Libyans were again represented among the troops of Zerah the Ethiopian, which penetrated Judah but suffered humiliating defeat. (2 Chron. 14:9-13; 16:8) In the seventh century B.C.E., the assistance of the Libyans and others was seemingly of no avail in saving the Egyptian city of No-amon from calamity at the hands of the Assyrians. (Nah. 3:7-10) The Libyans and Ethiopians were foretold to be at the “steps” of the “king of the north,” implying that these former supporters of Egypt would come under his control.—Dan. 11:43.

In the year 33 C.E., among the Jews and proselytes at Jerusalem for the festival of Pentecost were persons from “the parts of Libya, which is toward Cyrene,” that is, the western part of Libya. Likely some of these were baptized in response to Peter’s discourse and later carried the message of Christianity back to the land of their residence.—Acts 2:10.

LIE

The opposite of truth. Lying generally involves saying something false to a person who is entitled to know the truth and doing so with the intent to deceive or to injure him or another person. A lie need not always be verbal. It can also be expressed in action, that is, a person may be living a lie.

The father or originator of lying is Satan the Devil. (John 8:44) His lie, conveyed by means of a serpent to the first woman Eve, ultimately brought death to her and to her husband Adam. (Gen. 3:1-5, 16-19) That first lie was rooted in selfishness and wrong desire. It was designed to divert the love and obedience of the first human pair to the liar, who had presented himself as an “angel of light,” a benefactor. (Compare 2 Corinthians 11:14.) All other malicious lies uttered since that time have likewise been a reflection of selfishness and wrong desire. Lies have been told to escape deserved punishment, to profit at the expense of others and to gain or maintain certain advantages, material rewards or the praise of men.

Especially serious have been the religious lies, as they have endangered the future life of persons deceived by them. Said Jesus Christ: “Woe to you, scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites! because you traverse sea and dry land to make one proselyte, and when he becomes one you make him a subject for Gehenna twice as much so as yourselves.” (Matt. 23:15) The exchange of God’s truth for “the lie,” the falsehood of idolatry, can cause a person to become a practicer of what is degrading and vile.—Rom. 1:24-32.

The case of the religious leaders of Judaism in the time of Jesus’ earthly ministry shows what can happen when one abandons the truth. They schemed to have Jesus put to death. Then, when he was resurrected, they bribed the soldiers who had guarded the tomb to conceal the truth and spread a lie about the disappearance of Jesus’ body.—Matt. 12:14; 27:1, 2, 62-65; 28:11-15; Mark 14:1; Luke 20:19.

Jehovah God cannot lie (Num. 23:19; Heb. 6:13-18) and he hates a “false tongue.” (Prov. 6:16-19) His law to the Israelites required compensation for injuries resulting from deception or malicious lying.