representation and a shadow of the heavenly things.”—Heb. 8:3-5; 10:1.

PERIOD COVERED

Not a very long period is covered by the book of Leviticus, most of it being devoted to listing Jehovah’s ordinances rather than recounting various happenings over an extended period of time. Thus not more than a month can be covered by the events given in the book. The tabernacle’s erection on the first day of the first month in the second year of Israel’s departure from Egypt is mentioned in the final chapter of Exodus, the book preceding Leviticus. (Ex. 40:17) Then, the book of Numbers (immediately following the Leviticus account) in its first verses (1:1-3) begins with God’s command to take a census, stated to Moses “on the first day of the second month in the second year of their coming out of the land of Egypt.”

WHEN AND WHERE WRITTEN

The logical time for the writing of the book would therefore be 1512 B.C.E., at Sinai in the wilderness.

Testifying that Leviticus was indeed written in the wilderness are its references that reflect camp life. (Lev. 4:21; 10:4, 5; 14:8; 17:1-5) Hence it was not written by someone later when such unusual circumstances no longer prevailed, as claimed by some.

WRITER

All the foregoing evidence likewise helps to identify the writer as Moses. He received the information from Jehovah (Lev. 26:46), and the book’s closing words are: “These are the commandments that Jehovah gave Moses as commands to the sons of Israel in Mount Sinai.” (Lev. 27:34) Besides, Leviticus is a part of the Pentateuch, the writer of which is generally acknowledged to be Moses. Not only does the opening “and . . . ” of Leviticus indicate its connection with Exodus, and therefore with the rest of the Pentateuch, but the way in which Jesus Christ and the writers of the Christian Scriptures refer to it shows that they knew it to be the writing of Moses and an unquestionable part of the Pentateuch. For example, see Christ’s reference to Leviticus 14:1-32 (Matt. 8:2-4), Luke’s reference to Leviticus 12:2-4, 8 (Luke 2:22-24), and Paul’s paraphrasing of Leviticus 18:5 (Rom. 10:5).

OUTLINE OF CONTENTS

I. Regulations concerning sacrifices (1:1–7:38)

A. Procedure followed for burnt offerings (1:1-17)

B. Preparation and presentation of grain offerings (2:1-16)

C. Manner of handling communion sacrifices, including prohibition on eating fat and blood (3:1-17)

D. Procedure involving sin offerings and guilt offerings; various sins requiring sacrifice (4:1–6:7)

E. Instructions for priests on handling burnt offering, grain offering, offering to be presented on day of anointing, sin offering and guilt offering (6:8–7:7)

F. Portions of various offerings received by priest; regulations about eating communion sacrifices (7:8-38)

II. Installation procedure for Aaronic priesthood (8:1-36)

III. Aaronic priesthood begins functioning (9:1–10:20)

A. Sacrifices presented on altar; burnt offering and fatty pieces consumed by fire from Jehovah (9:1-24)

B. Nadab and Abihu consumed by fire from Jehovah for having offered illegitimate fire; Aaron and other sons heed command not to mourn or leave entrance of tent of meeting (10:1-7)

C. Priests commanded not to drink wine or intoxicating liquor when officiating (10:8-11)

D. Moses advises Aaron, Eleazar and Ithamar about priestly portion of sacrifices and becomes indignant because Eleazar and Ithamar had not eaten goat of sin offering (10:12-20)

IV. Animals clean or unclean for food; uncleanness from dead bodies (11:1-47)

V. Purification of women upon giving birth (12:1-8)

VI. Leprosy: symptoms and procedure in ease of humans, garments, other articles and houses; offerings for cleansed leper and purified house (13:1–14:57)

VII. Uncleanness from male and female sexual discharges (15:1-33)

VIII. Procedure followed on annual atonement day (16:1-34)

IX. Regulations about eating meat, offerings; prohibition on eating blood; law concerning eating animals already dead (17:1-16)

X. Judicial decisions concerning incest, sexual perversions and numerous other detestable practices, including idolatry, spiritism, lying, slander and the like (18:1–20:27)

XI. Priests to keep themselves holy; regulations about their marrying and concerning defects that would render them unfit for officiating at sanctuary; priestly uncleannesses; regulations about eating holy things and regarding sacrifices (21:1–22:33)

XII. Israel’s seasonal festivals and manner of observance (23:1-44)

XIII. Regulations regarding lampstand, showbread, abuse of God’s name, murder, compensation and retributive justice, sabbath year, Jubilee year, repurchasing, conduct toward poor Israelites and slavery (24:1–25:55)

XIV. Blessings for obedience; maledictions for disobedience (26:1-46)

XV. Regulations about vow evaluations, firstborn of animals, devoted things and tenths (27:1-34)

VALUE OF THE BOOK

God promised Israel that if they obeyed his voice they would become to him “a kingdom of priests and a holy nation.” (Ex. 19:6) The book of Leviticus contains a record of God’s installing a priesthood for his nation and giving them the statutes that would enable them to maintain holiness in his eyes. Even though Israel was only God’s typical “holy nation,” whose priests were “rendering sacred service in a typical representation and a shadow of the heavenly things” (Heb. 8:4, 5), God’s law, if obeyed, would have kept them clean and in line for filling the membership of his spiritual “royal priesthood, a holy nation.” (1 Pet. 2:9) But the disobedience of the majority deprived Israel of filling exclusively the place of membership in the kingdom of God, as Jesus told the Jews. (Matt. 21:43) Nevertheless, the laws set down in the book of Leviticus were of inestimable value to those heeding them.

Through the sanitary and dietary laws, as well as the regulations on sexual morality, they were provided with safeguards against disease and depravity. (Lev. chaps. 11-15, 18) Especially, however, did these laws benefit them spiritually, because they enabled them to get acquainted with Jehovah’s holy and righteous ways and they helped them to conform to His ways. (Lev. 11:44) Furthermore, the regulations set out in this portion of the Bible, as part of the Law, served as a tutor leading believing ones to Jesus Christ, God’s great High Priest and the one foreshadowed by the countless sacrifices offered in accord with the Law.—Gal. 3:19, 24; Heb. 7:26-28; 9:11-14; 10:1-10.

The book of Leviticus continues to be of great value to all today who desire to serve Jehovah acceptably. A study of the fulfillment of its various features in connection with Jesus Christ, the ransom sacrifice and the Christian congregation is indeed faith-strengthening. While it is true that Christians are not under the Law covenant (Heb. 7:11, 12, 19; 8:13; 10:1), the regulations set out in the book of Leviticus give them insight into God’s viewpoint on matters. The book is, therefore, not a mere recounting of dry, inapplicable details, but a live source of information. By getting a knowledge of how God views various matters, some of which are not specifically covered in the Christian Greek Scriptures, the Christian can be aided to avoid what displeases God and to do what pleases him.

LIBERTY

See FREEDOM.

LIBNAH

(Lib’nah) [whiteness].

1. An Israelite wilderness encampment. Its location is unknown.—Num. 33:20, 21.

2. A royal Canaanite city taken by Joshua before the conquest of Lachish. (Josh. 10:29-32, 39; 12:15) Libnah was one of the cities in the territory of Judah given to the “sons of Aaron.” (Josh. 15:21, 42; 21:13; 1 Chron. 6:57) Centuries later King Josiah’s father-in-law lived there.—2 Ki. 23:31; 24:18; Jer. 52:1.

At the time of the Edomite revolt in the tenth century B.C.E., Libnah also rebelled against Judean King Jehoram. (2 Ki. 8:22; 2 Chron. 21:10) In 732 B.C.E. Assyrian King Sennacherib’s army moved from Lachish to Libnah. He had sent a military detachment from Lachish to threaten Jerusalem. While at Libnah, the Assyrians received reports that Tirhakah the king of Ethiopia intended to fight them. Therefore, Sennacherib, to encourage Jerusalem’s surrender, sent messengers a second time with intimidating letters to Hezekiah the king of Judah. Subsequently Jehovah’s angel slew 185,000 of the Assyrian host, apparently still encamped near Libnah.—2 Ki. 19:8-35; Isa. 37:8-36.

Tell es-Safi, located less than six miles (10 kilometers) W of the suggested site of Azekah, is generally favored as a possible identification of ancient Libnah. This crescent-shaped mound, with its cliffs of white limestone, is a natural fortress. However, some scholars prefer linking Libnah with Tell Bornot, about five and a half miles (9 kilometers) SE of Tell es-Safi.

LIBNI

(Libʹni) [white].

1. A grandson of Levi and the son of Gershon (Gershom). (Ex. 6:17; 1 Chron. 6:17) He was the founder of a Levitical family (Num. 3:18, 21; 1 Chron. 6:19, 20) and was evidently also called Ladan.—1 Chron. 23:6, 7; 26:21.

2. A Levite who descended from Merari through Mahli.—1 Chron. 6:29.

LIBNITES

A family of Levites who descended from Gershon (Gershom) through his son Libni.—Num. 3:21; 26:58.

LIBYA

(Libʹy·a), Libyans (Libʹy·ans).

Ancient Libya occupied an area of northern Africa W of Egypt. Its inhabitants are generally thought to have been designated by the Hebrew term Lu·vimʹ. (2 Chron. 12:3; “Libyans,” LXX, NW, RS) If Lu·vimʹ is a variant of L^eha·vimʹ (Lehabim), this may indicate that at least some of the Libyans descended from Ham through Mizraim. (Gen. 10:13) The traditional Jewish view found in the writings of Josephus (Antiquities of the Jews, Book I, chap. II, par. 2) makes the Libyans descendants of Ham through Put. (Gen. 10:6) Also, the Greek Septuagint and the Latin Vulgate read “Libya” or “Libyans” four times where the Hebrew text says “Put.” (Jer. 46:9; Ezek. 27:10; 30:5; 38:5) It is possible, of course, that descendants of both Put and Mizraim settled in the geographical region of northern Africa that came to be called Libya. This would mean that the designation “Libyans” is more comprehensive than the Hebrew term Lu·vimʹ.

Since the Septuagint Version employs “Libyans” instead of “Chub” (Kuv) at Ezekiel 30:5, some scholars link Kuv with Libya and regard the term as a spelling error for Luv.

An ancient Egyptian wall painting depicts a number of light-skinned men believed to be Libyans. The Berbers, a people thought to have descended from the Libyans, are basically “white” and generally have dark hair and eyes. Whether the Libyans were originally a dark-complexioned race cannot now be determined. Intermarriage with fair-skinned peoples could, of course, have altered their features.

Egypt’s King Shishak, regarded as the founder of the “Libyan dynasty,” captured numerous cities when be invaded Judah in the fifth year of King Rehoboam (993/992 B.C.E.). His powerful force of chariots and horsemen included Libyans. Although Jerusalem itself was spared, Shishak stripped the city of its treasures. (1 Ki. 14:25, 26; 2 Chron. 12:2-9) About twenty-six years later (967/966 B.C.E.) the Libyans were again represented among the troops of Zerah the Ethiopian, which penetrated Judah but suffered humiliating defeat. (2 Chron. 14:9-13; 16:8) In the seventh century B.C.E., the assistance of the Libyans and others was seemingly of no avail in saving the Egyptian city of No-amon from calamity at the hands of the Assyrians. (Nah. 3:7-10) The Libyans and Ethiopians were foretold to be at the “steps” of the “king of the north,” implying that these former supporters of Egypt would come under his control.—Dan. 11:43.

In the year 33 C.E., among the Jews and proselytes at Jerusalem for the festival of Pentecost were persons from “the parts of Libya, which is toward Cyrene,” that is, the western part of Libya. Likely some of these were baptized in response to Peter’s discourse and later carried the message of Christianity back to the land of their residence.—Acts 2:10.

LIE

The opposite of truth. Lying generally involves saying something false to a person who is entitled to know the truth and doing so with the intent to deceive or to injure him or another person. A lie need not always be verbal. It can also be expressed in action, that is, a person may be living a lie.

The father or originator of lying is Satan the Devil. (John 8:44) His lie, conveyed by means of a serpent to the first woman Eve, ultimately brought death to her and to her husband Adam. (Gen. 3:1-5, 16-19) That first lie was rooted in selfishness and wrong desire. It was designed to divert the love and obedience of the first human pair to the liar, who had presented himself as an “angel of light,” a benefactor. (Compare 2 Corinthians 11:14.) All other malicious lies uttered since that time have likewise been a reflection of selfishness and wrong desire. Lies have been told to escape deserved punishment, to profit at the expense of others and to gain or maintain certain advantages, material rewards or the praise of men.

Especially serious have been the religious lies, as they have endangered the future life of persons deceived by them. Said Jesus Christ: “Woe to you, scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites! because you traverse sea and dry land to make one proselyte, and when he becomes one you make him a subject for Gehenna twice as much so as yourselves.” (Matt. 23:15) The exchange of God’s truth for “the lie,” the falsehood of idolatry, can cause a person to become a practicer of what is degrading and vile.—Rom. 1:24-32.

The case of the religious leaders of Judaism in the time of Jesus’ earthly ministry shows what can happen when one abandons the truth. They schemed to have Jesus put to death. Then, when he was resurrected, they bribed the soldiers who had guarded the tomb to conceal the truth and spread a lie about the disappearance of Jesus’ body.—Matt. 12:14; 27:1, 2, 62-65; 28:11-15; Mark 14:1; Luke 20:19.

Jehovah God cannot lie (Num. 23:19; Heb. 6:13-18) and he hates a “false tongue.” (Prov. 6:16-19) His law to the Israelites required compensation for injuries resulting from deception or malicious lying.