and its Aaronic priesthood were completely removed, the burning of incense in the worship of God ceased. No authorization for its use in the Christian congregation was given, and early Christians, like the Jews, never individually burned incense for religious purposes.

Early Christians also refused to burn incense in honor of the emperor, even though it cost them their lives. As Daniel P. Mannix observes: “Very few of the Christians recanted, although an altar with a fire burning on it was generally kept in the arena for their convenience. All a prisoner had to do was scatter a pinch of incense on the flame and he was given a Certificate of Sacrifice and turned free. It was also carefully explained to him that he was not worshiping the emperor; merely acknowledging the divine character of the emperor as head of the Roman state. Still, almost no Christians availed themselves of the chance to escape.”—Those About to Die (New York; 1958), p. 137.

Tertullian (2nd and 3rd centuries C.E.) says that Christians would not even engage in the incense trade. (On Idolatry, Chap. XI) This, however, is not the case with the incense merchants doing business with symbolic Babylon the Great.—Rev. 18:11, 13.

INCENSE, ALTAR OF

See ALTAR.

INCEST

See LAW.

INCORRUPTION

Direct references to incorruption are found only in the Christian Greek Scriptures. There the word translates the Greek a·phthar·siʹa, formed of the negative prefix a and a form of phtheiʹro, this latter word meaning to corrupt (2 Cor. 7:2), spoil (1 Cor. 15:33), or ruin (Rev. 11:18), hence to bring to a lower or inferior state; also to put to death or destroy (2 Pet. 2:12). The adjective form aʹphthar·tos (incorruptible) is also used. In considering incorruption, it is helpful to consider first the use of the Greek terms for corruption and corruptibility, remembering, of course, that there is a difference between a thing’s being corrupt and its being corruptible, that is, capable of being corrupted.

CORRUPTION AND CORRUPTIBILITY

Corruption and corruptibility may relate both to things material and to things not material. The crown that Greek athletes sought was corruptible, subject to decay, deterioration or disintegration (1 Cor. 9:25), even gold (dissoluble in aqua regia) and silver being corruptible (1 Pet. 1:18; compare James 5:3); boats can be “wrecked” or, literally, “corrupted through” (from the intensive form di·a·phtheiʹro), suffering breakdown of their structural form. (Rev. 8:9) Man, the fleshly creature, is corruptible (Rom. 1:23), in his imperfect state his body being subject to damaging diseases and eventually to dissolution in death, the elements forming the body breaking down in decay. (Acts 13:36) As regards things not material, good habits can be corrupted or spoiled by bad associations (1 Cor. 15:33), men may become mentally corrupted, turned away from sincerity, chastity and truth (2 Cor. 11:3; 1 Tim. 6:5; 2 Tim. 3:8), this resulting in moral decay, a corrupting of the individual’s personality.—Eph. 4:22; Jude 10.

Even perfect human bodies are corruptible, that is, they are not beyond ruin or destruction. For this reason, the apostle Paul could say that the resurrected Jesus was thereafter “destined no more to return to corruption” (Acts 13:34), that is, never to return to life in a corruptible human body. Only God’s action prevented the fleshly body of his Son’s earthly existence from seeing corruption in the grave. (Acts 2:31; 13:35-37) Not, however, that that body was preserved for the resurrected Jesus’ use, since the apostle Peter states that Jesus was “put to death in the flesh, but . . . made alive in the spirit.” (1 Pet. 3:18) It thus seems evident that God disposed of that body miraculously, thereby not letting it see ruinous decay.—See BODY (Christ’s Body of Flesh).

Angels, though spirit creatures, are shown to have corruptible bodies, inasmuch as they are declared to be subject to destruction.—Matt. 25:41; 2 Pet. 2:4; compare Luke 4:33, 34.

Human enslavement to corruption

While Adam, even in his perfection, had a corruptible body, it was only because of his rebellion against God that he experienced corruption. By sinning he came into “enslavement to corruption” and passed this condition on to all his offspring, the human race. (Rom. 8:20-22) This enslavement to corruption results from sin or transgression (Rom. 5:12) and produces bodily imperfection that leads to degradation, disease, aging and death. For this reason, the one ‘sowing with a view to the flesh reaps corruption from his flesh’ and does not gain the everlasting life promised those who sow with a view to the spirit.—Gal. 6:8; compare 2 Peter 2:12, 18, 19.

ATTAINMENT OF INCORRUPTION BY CHRISTIANS

As noted, the Hebrew Scriptures make no direct reference to incorruption, and regularly stress the mortality of the human soul. (See IMMORTALITY; SOUL.) Thus, the apostle says of Christ Jesus that he “has shed light upon life and incorruption through the good news.” (2 Tim. 1:10) Through Jesus, God revealed the sacred secret of his purpose to grant to anointed Christians the privilege of reigning with his Son in the heavens. (Luke 12:32; John 14:2, 3; compare Ephesians 1:9-11.) By resurrecting their Savior Jesus Christ from the dead, God has given such Christians the living hope of “an incorruptible and undefiled and unfading inheritance . . . reserved in the heavens.” (1 Pet. 1:3, 4, 18, 19; compare 1 Corinthians 9:25.) Such ones are “born again” while yet in the flesh, that is, granted the position of spiritual sons of God, born of “incorruptible reproductive seed, through the word of the living and enduring God.”—1 Pet. 1:23; compare 1 John 3:1, 9.

Though dealt with by God as his spiritual sons and although having the promise of an incorruptible inheritance, these Christians called to the heavenly kingdom do not possess immortality or incorruption while yet on earth in the flesh. This is seen from the fact that they are “seeking glory and honor and incorruptibleness by endurance in work that is good.” (Rom. 2:6, 7) The “incorruptibleness” sought evidently does not mean merely freedom from moral corruption. By following Christ’s example and by faith in his ransom sacrifice these Christians have already “escaped from the corruption that is in the world through lust” (2 Pet. 1:3, 4), “loving our Lord Jesus Christ in incorruptness” and ‘showing incorruptness in their teaching.’ (Eph. 6:24; Titus 2:7, 8) The incorruptibleness (along with glory and honor) they seek by faithful endurance relates to their glorification at the time of their resurrection as actual spirit sons of God, and this is evident from Paul’s first letter to the Corinthians.

RESURRECTION TO IMMORTALITY AND INCORRUPTION

As considered in the article on IMMORTALITY, Christ Jesus entered into immortality upon his resurrection from the dead, thereafter possessing an “indestructible life.” (1 Tim. 6:15, 16; Heb. 7:15-17) As the “exact representation of [the] very being” of his Father, who is the incorruptible God (Heb. 1:3; 1 Tim. 1:17), the resurrected Jesus also enjoys incorruptibility.

United with Jesus in the likeness of his resurrection, his joint heirs also are resurrected, not merely to everlasting life as spirit creatures but to immortality and incorruption. Having lived, served faithfully and died in corruptible human bodies, they now receive incorruptible spirit bodies, as Paul clearly states at 1 Corinthians 15:42-54. Immortality therefore evidently refers to the quality of the life they enjoy, its endlessness and indestructibility, whereas incorruption apparently relates to the organism or body that God gives them, one that is inherently beyond decay, ruin or destruction. It therefore appears that God grants them the power to be self-sustaining, not dependent upon outside sources of energy as are his other creatures, fleshly and spirit. This is a stirring evidence of God’s confidence in them. Such independent and indestructible existence, however, does not remove them from God’s control and they, like their Head Christ Jesus, continue subject to their Father’s will and directions.—1 Cor. 15:23-28.

INDIA

(Inʹdi·a) [Heb., Hodʹdu; compare Sanskrit Sindhu, meaning “sea, great river” and therefore evidently referring primarily to the Indus River].

The exact area designated by the Bible name “India” is uncertain. (Esther 8:9) Scholars generally suggest that it denotes the area drained by the Indus River and its tributaries, that is, the Punjab region and perhaps also Sind. The testimony of the historian Herodotus (III, 88, 94; IV, 44) indicates that “India” first became a part of the Persian Empire during the rule of Darius Hystaspis (c. 522-486 B.C.E.). In the time of Ahasuerus (considered to be Xerxes I, son of Darius Hystaspis) India still constituted the eastern limit of the empire. (Esther 1:1) Inscriptions of Xerxes I also list India as part of his domain.

Archaeological evidence shows that a civilization flourished in the Indus Valley centuries before the Persian period. The most ancient sites there give evidence of city planning and attention to sanitation. Streets were carefully laid out to form blocks, and a drainage system led from the homes into bricklined sewers. The cities also had large public baths.

Likely the Indus Valley was settled not long after the language of Babel’s builders was confused. A comparison of the ancient civilization of the Indus Valley with that of Mesopotamia does, in fact, reveal similarities. These include the erection of structures like the ziggurat platforms of Mesopotamia, sculptures of the human figure with heads having the masklike features typical of ancient Mesopotamian sculpture, and pictographic signs that bear a resemblance to early Mesopotamian forms. Assyriologist Samuel N. Kramer has suggested that the Indus Valley was settled by a people who fled from Mesopotamia when the Sumerians took control of the area.

INDUSTRIOUSNESS

Steady and persevering activity; painstaking effort; zeal; diligence; constant, regular or habitual occupation. Commonly the term implies lawful and useful labor. It is opposite to slothfulness or idleness.

The Hebrew and Greek words in the Bible that are sometimes translated “industrious” or “industriousness” are more often rendered “earnest,” “earnestness,” and other forms of such words are frequently translated “endeavor,” “do [one’s] utmost.”

JEHOVAH AND JESUS CHRIST

Industriousness is a quality of Jehovah God. “Due to the abundance of dynamic energy, he also being vigorous in power, not one [of the army of things he has created] is missing.” (Isa. 40:26) His creation, with its beauty and intricacy and the evidence of his loving care in every detail, stands as proof of his untiring industriousness. (Ps. 19:1; 139:14; Isa. 40:28) Jehovah’s Son follows his pattern. He said: “My Father has kept working until now, and I keep working.”—John 5:17.

JEHOVAH’S SERVANTS

Industrious activity has also been a mark of God’s true servants from the beginning. Abel was a doer of “righteous” works. (1 John 3:12) Noah exerted himself vigorously in building the huge ark, at the same time being “a preacher of righteousness.” (2 Pet. 2:5) Abraham, Jacob, Joseph, Moses, David and the prophets were all men of action, desirous of getting a Job done well. (Gen. 18:6-8; 31:38-42; 39:1-6; Ex. 40:16; 1 Sam. 17:32-37; Heb. 11:32-38) The young man Jeroboam, though he later proved unfaithful to God, was made an overseer by King Solomon because of his being “industrious” (AV; RS; Heb., “a doer of work”). (1 Ki. 11:28) Jeroboam’s industriousness no doubt played a part in his becoming ruler over the ten-tribe kingdom of Israel.

ADMONITION TO CHRISTIANS

The Christian writer James, an industrious man who was evidently overseer of the Christian congregation at Jerusalem, writes: “Faith, if it does not have works, is dead in itself.” (Jas. 2:17) For this reason, Christians are admonished not to slack their hands or become weary in well doing, but to “show the same industriousness so as to have the full assurance of the hope down to the end, in order that you may not become sluggish, but be imitators of those who through faith and patience inherit the promises.” (Heb. 6:11, 12; compare Proverbs 10:4; 12:24; 18:9.) Jesus Christ told his disciples: “Exert yourselves vigorously to get in through the narrow door, because many, I tell you, will seek to get in but will not be able.” (Luke 13:24) Paul himself was an example of this.—Col. 1:29; 2 Thess. 3:7-9.

To prevent their being inactive or unfruitful as Christians, they must ‘contribute in response [to God’s promises] all earnest effort’ in supplying to their faith virtue, knowledge, self-control, endurance, godly devotion, brotherly affection and love. (2 Pet. 1:4-8) This calls for the constant application of industrious perseverance (2 Tim. 2:15; Heb. 4:11) and unflagging attention. (Heb. 2:1) Much of the strength for this comes through the help of Jehovah’s spirit. What could more strongly express the need for industriousness than the apostle Paul’s counsel: “Do not loiter at your business. Be aglow with the spirit. Slave for Jehovah”? This requirement of industriousness applies to all ministers (“let us be at this ministry”), but with special force to those in positions in which they preside over meetings and activities in the congregation, for “he that presides, let him do it in real earnest.”—Rom. 12:7, 8, 11.

A rule in the congregation

In the Christian congregation, needy ones receiving material help from the congregation must be industrious ones. The Scriptural rule is: “If anyone does not want to work, neither let him eat.” The exhortation to those not working is to get busy, “that by working with quietness they should eat food they themselves earn.” (2 Thess. 3:10-12) A professed Christian who refuses or neglects to provide for his household “has disowned the faith and is worse than a person without faith.” (1 Tim. 5:8) Even widows who were needy, before being put on the congregation’s list for regular provision of material assistance, had to have a record of Christian activity, having “diligently followed every good work.”—1 Tim. 5:9, 10.

REWARDS OF INDUSTRIOUSNESS

Rich rewards come to the industrious person both now and in the future. “The hand of the diligent one is what will make one rich.” (Prov. 10:4) “The hand of the diligent ones is the one that will rule.” (Prov. 12:24) Their soul “will be made fat.” (Prov. 13:4) The industrious wife is one whose “sons have risen up and proceeded to pronounce her happy; her owner rises up, and he praises her.” Of her, it is proclaimed: “Give her of the fruitage of her hands, and let her works praise her even in the gates.” (Prov. 31:28, 31) Above all, the spiritual brothers of Christ are told: “Do your utmost to make the calling and choosing of you sure for yourselves; for if you keep on doing these things you will by no means ever fail. In fact, thus there will be richly